Trends in Widely Used Catalysts for Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) Production: A Review

Nisar, Shafaq; Hanif, Muhammad Asif; Rashid, Umer; Hanif, Asma; Akhtar, Muhammad Nadeem; Ngamcharussrivichai, Chawalit

doi:10.3390/catal11091085

Cited by 44 publications

(21 citation statements)

References 88 publications

(93 reference statements)

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“…For the transesterification processes, a number of heterogeneous (solid) catalysts have been tested at the laboratory scale. A recent review discusses the use of heteropoly acids (HPAs) and polyoxometalate compounds [ 5 ]. The flexibility of their structures and super acidic properties can be enhanced by incorporation of polyoxometalate anions into the complex proton acids.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Catalytic Transformation of Triglycerides to Biodiesel with SiO2-SO3H and Quaternary Ammonium Salts in Toluene or DMSO

et al. 2022

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SiO2-SO3H, with a surface area of 115 m2·g−1, pore volumes of 0.38 cm3·g−1 and 1.32 mmol H+/g, was used as a transesterification catalyst. Triglycerides of waste cooking oil reacted with methanol in refluxing toluene to yield mixtures of diglycerides, monoglycerides and fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) in the presence of 20% (w/w) catalyst/oil using the hydrophilic sulfonated silica (SiO2-SO3H) catalyst alone or with the addition of 10% (w/w) co-catalyst/oil [(Bun4N)(BF4) or Aliquat 336]. The addition of the ammonium salts to the catalyst lead to a decrease in the amounts of diglycerides in the products, but the concentrations of monoglycerides increased. Mixtures of (Bun4N)(BF4)/catalyst were superior to catalyst alone or Aliquat 336/catalyst for promoting the production of mixtures with high concentrations of FAMEs. The same experiments were repeated using DMSO as the solvent. The use of the more polar solvent resulted in excellent conversion of the triglycerides to FAME esters with all three-catalyst media. A simplified mechanism is presented to account for the experimental results.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Catalytic Transformation of Triglycerides to Biodiesel with SiO2-SO3H and Quaternary Ammonium Salts in Toluene or DMSO

et al. 2022

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“…where −dn A /dt represents the moles consumed of reagent A (triglyceride), k is the kinetic constant, W is the weight of catalyst, C A is triglyceride concentration at a certain time t, K A is the constant of adsorption balance for triglyceride, C B is the concentration of B reagent (methanol) at a time t, and K B is the constant of adsorption balance for methanol. The global transesterification reaction can be described by Equation (4), where A represents the triglyceride molecule, B is methanol, C is fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), and D is glycerol.…”

Section: Kinetic Studymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The use of heterogeneous catalysts could be an alternative, gaining more and more importance [3]. The increase in costs due to their use (related to the cost of materials, catalyst preparation, and more extreme chemical conditions) can be offset by their reusability and the subsequent sustainability of the process [3,4]. Moreover, the use of relatively abundant and cheap active phases (for instance, salts that can easily add metal species, such as NaNO 3 ) and supports (such as SiAl) could improve the efficiency of the process.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Thus, the reaction time required to obtain a conversion that complies with UNE-EN standard (that is, 96.5% FAMEs [8]) is always longer than the reaction time required through homogeneous catalysis, due to diffusion problems originated by the inclusion of a new phase in the reaction medium, that is, the heterogeneous catalyst. Consequently, basic heterogeneous catalysts require, in general, more extreme chemical reactions and longer reaction times than in the case of homogeneous catalysts [4].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Use of NaNO3/SiAl as Heterogeneous Catalyst for Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Production from Rapeseed Oil

et al. 2021

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The use of heterogeneous catalysts to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) through transesterification with methanol might contribute to both green chemistry and a circular economy, as the process can be simplified, not requiring additional stages to recover the catalyst once the reaction takes place. For this purpose, different catalysts are used, including a wide range of possibilities. In this research the use of NaNO3/SiAl as a heterogeneous catalyst for FAME production through transesterification of rapeseed oil with methanol is considered. A thorough characterization of the catalyst (including XDR and XPS analysis, SEM microscopy, lixiviation and reusability tests, among others), specific optimization of transesterification by using the final catalyst (considering catalyst amount, stirring rate, methanol/oil ratio, and temperature), and quality determination of the final biodiesel (following the UNE-EN 14214 standard) were carried out. In conclusion, 20 mmolNa·gsupport−1 (that is, NaNO3/SiAl 20/1) offered the best results, with a high activity (exceeding 99% w/w of FAMEs) without requiring higher impregnation amounts. The best chemical conditions for this heterogeneous catalyst were 5% w/w catalyst, 700 rpm, 9:1 methanol/oil ratio, and 65 °C, obtaining Ea = 73.3 kJ·mol−1 and a high-quality biodiesel, similar to those obtained through homogeneous catalysis. Consequently, this catalyst could be a suitable precursor for FAME production.

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“…To make it further popular and competitive it is necessary to use non-food crops. It will not only reduce production costs but will also end food verses fuel debate 11 – 16 . There are several clays including Bentonite, White pocha, Kolten and Sindh clays which are used in ceramic industry and available at very low cost.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The production of biodiesel from plum waste oil using nano-structured catalyst loaded into supports

Saeed

Hanif

Nawaz

et al. 2021

Sci Rep

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The present study was undertaken with aims to produced catalyst loaded on low-cost clay supports and to utilize plum waste seed oil for the production of biodiesel. For this purpose, Bentonite–potassium ferricyanide, White pocha-potassium ferricyanide, Granite-potassium ferricyanide, Sindh clay-potassium ferricyanide, and Kolten-potassium ferricyanide composites were prepared. Transesterification of plum oil under the different conditions of reactions like catalysts concentrations (0.15, 0.3 and 0.6 g), temperature (50, 60, 70 and 80 °C), reaction time (2, 4 and 6 h) and oil to methanol ratio (1:10) was conducted. The maximum biodiesel yield was recorded for Bentonite–potassium ferricyanide composite. This composite was subjected to calcination process to produce Calcinized bentonite–potassium ferricyanide composite and a further improvement in biodiesel amount was recorded. The fuel quality parameters of all biodiesel samples were in standard range. Gas chromatographic mass spectrometric analysis confirmed the presence of oleic and linoleic acids in the plum seed oil. The characterization of composite was done using FTIR, SEM and EDX. Two infrared bands are observed in the spectrum from 1650 to 1630 cm−1 indicates that the composite materials contained highly hydrogen bonded water. The presence of surface hydroxyls groups can also be confirmed from FTIR data. SEM image clearly show the presence of nano-rods on the surface of Granite-potassium ferricyanide and Kolten-potassium ferricyanide composites. Another interesting observation that can be recorded from SEM images is the changes in surface characteristic of Bentonite–potassium ferricyanide composite after calcination (at 750 °C, 1 atm for 4 h). Calcinized bentonite–potassium ferricyanide composite found to contain more nano rod like structures at its surface as compared to Bentonite–potassium ferricyanide composite which contained spherical particles. EDX data of Bentonite–potassium ferricyanide composite and Calcinized bentonite–potassium ferricyanide composite show that after calcination carbon and oxygen was reduced. The other lost volatile compounds after calcination were of Na, Mg, Al, Si, and S. The XRD spectrum of pure bentonite showed the average crystal size of 24.46 nm and calcinized bentonite of 25.59 nm. The average crystal size of bentonite and potassium ferricyanide composite and its calcinized form was around 33.76 nm and 41.05 nm, respectively.

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Trends in Widely Used Catalysts for Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) Production: A Review

Cited by 44 publications

References 88 publications

Catalytic Transformation of Triglycerides to Biodiesel with SiO2-SO3H and Quaternary Ammonium Salts in Toluene or DMSO

Catalytic Transformation of Triglycerides to Biodiesel with SiO2-SO3H and Quaternary Ammonium Salts in Toluene or DMSO

Use of NaNO3/SiAl as Heterogeneous Catalyst for Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Production from Rapeseed Oil

The production of biodiesel from plum waste oil using nano-structured catalyst loaded into supports

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