Tryptophan, kynurenine pathway, and diabetic ketoacidosis in type 1 diabetes

Abstract

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a serious complication of complete insulin deficiency and insulin resistance in Type 1 diabetes (T1D). This results in the body producing high levels of serum ketones in an attempt to compensate for the insulin deficiency and decreased glucose utilization. DKA’s metabolic and immunologic dysregulation results in gradual increase of systemic and cerebral oxidative stress, along with low grade systemic and cerebral inflammation and the development of pretreatment subclinical BE. During treatment the early progression of oxidative stress and inflammation is hypothesized to advance the possibility of occurrence of crisis of clinical brain edema (BE), which is the most important cause of morbidity and mortality in pediatric DKA. Longitudinal neurocognitive studies after DKA treatment show progressive and latent deficits of cognition and emphasize the need for more effective DKA treatment of this long-standing conundrum of clinical BE, in the presence of systemic osmotic dehydration, metabolic acidosis and immune dysregulation. Candidate biomarkers of several systemic and neuroinflammatory pathways prior to treatment also progress during treatment, such as the neurotoxic and neuroprotective molecules in the well-recognized tryptophan (TRP)/kynurenine pathway (KP) that have not been investigated in DKA. We used LC-MS/MS targeted mass spectrometry analysis to determine the presence and initiation of the TRP/KP at three time points: A) 6–12 hours after initiation of treatment; B) 2 weeks; and C) 3 months following DKA treatment to determine if they might be involved in the pathogenesis of the acute vasogenic complication of DKA/BE. The Trp/KP metabolites TRP, KYN, quinolinic acid (QA), xanthurnenic acid (XA), and picolinic acid (PA) followed a similar pattern of lower levels in early treatment, with subsequent increases. Time point A compared to Time points B and C were similar to the pattern of sRAGE, lactate and pyruvic acid. The serotonin/melatonin metabolites also followed a similar pattern of lower quantities at the early stages of treatment compared to 3 months after treatment. In addition, glutamate, n-acetylglutamate, glutamine, and taurine were all lower at early treatment compared to 3 months, while the ketones 3-hydroxybutaric acid and acetoacetate were significantly higher in the early treatment compared to 3 months. The two major fat metabolites, L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) changed inversely, with ALC significantly decreasing at 2 weeks and 3 months compared to the early stages of treatment. Both anthranilic acid (AA) and 3-OH-anthranilic acid (3OH-AA) had overall higher levels in the early stages of treatment (A) compared to Time points (B and C). Interestingly, the levels of AA and 3OH-AA early in treatment were higher in Caucasian females compared to African American females. There were also differences in the metabolite levels of QA and kynurenic acid (KA) between genders and between races that may be important for further development of custom targeted treatments. We hypothesize that the TRP/KP, along with the other inflammatory pathways, is an active participant in the metabolic and immunologic pathogenesis of DKA’s acute and chronic insults.

Tryptophan Metabolites, Cytokines, and Fatty Acid Binding Protein 2 in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

“…A further and important point that may explain possible discrepancies between our and the abovementioned studies is the fact that serum samples in Groven et al [ 54 ] and Hoel et al [ 22 ] were collected without restrictions about the feeding state, which is an important factor in determining circulating levels of tryptophan and its metabolites [ 14 ]. Of interest, changes in tryptophan biomarkers similar to those found in our patients (low tryptophan, kynurenine, and serotonin and high 3-hydroxykynurenine) have been observed in diabetic ketoacidosis [ 55 , 56 ]. Thus, it is possible that part of the discrepancy between our findings and those of Groven et al [ 54 ] and Hoel et al [ 22 ] may rely on a particular response to fasting by patients with ME/CFS, who present an increased expression of enzymes involved in ketone body metabolism [ 57 ] and, for their energy needs, may depend on fatty acid β–oxidation more than healthy controls [ 8 ]).…”

Tryptophan-Kynurenine Pathway in COVID-19-Dependent Musculoskeletal Pathology: A Minireview

“…Some of the comorbidities that have been associated with severe COVID-19 are aging, diabetes, hypertension, chronic lung disease, cancer, and HIV. It is well known that the tryptophan-Kyn pathway is activated in the abovementioned conditions [ 51 – 55 ].…”

Phytochemical composition of Tibetan tea fermented by Eurotium cristatum and its effects on type 1 diabetes mice and gut microbiota

“…Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is caused by the absolute insulin deficiency associated with autoimmune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β-cells islets. T1DM patients regularly take exogenous insulin to prevent the development of ketoacidosis for survival [ 2 ]. Although T1DM composes of about ten percent of the diabetic population, it is more difficult for people to overcome or alleviate T1DM than Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).…”