Ultra-low fertility in East Asia: Confucianism and its discontents

Abstract

This study reviews the institutional factors that have influenced the fertility and family trends in five East Asian societies that experienced a precipitous transition to very low fertility: China, Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan. The paper begins by outlining the unique family formation patterns of these societies and the existing explanations for their observed ultra-low fertility levels. In particular, it highlights the role of Confucian culture, which emphasises patriarchal values and credentialism, in shaping the current state of low fertility in East Asia. For example, the ways in which Confucianism affects women's roles at home, the effectiveness of pronatalist policies and the burden of human capital investments among parents are discussed. With these contextual factors and the current very low fertility rates as a backdrop, this study also examines attitudinal changes in marriage and family values that have taken place in these societies after the new millennium. These changes could further erode the traditional family and influence family formation trends in the future. The article concludes by discussing recent policy responses and the possible future of fertility in East Asia.

Usage and cost-effectiveness of elective oocyte freezing: a retrospective observational study

“…In addition, low acceptance of nonmarital birth in the East Asian society is another negative factor that hinders women from becoming pregnant, owing to instability in their relationships. The community is becoming more open-minded; however, childbearing is usually not an option for unmarried women [ 32 ].…”

Work and fertility in Taiwan: how do women’s and men’s career sequences associate with fertility outcomes?

“…Taiwan is well known for its currently ultra-low fertility rates and late adulthood transitions in the demographic literature (Goldstein et al, 2009;Nauck et al, 2017;Jones, 2019;Cheng, 2020). During the post-Second World War industrialisation, Taiwan's period total fertility rate (PTFR) has dropped from seven children in 1951 to the replacement level of 2.1 children in 1983.…”

“…Taiwan, together with Japan and South Korea in East Asia, is usually ranked among the countries with the most inadequate conditions for combining work with family (Jones, 2007;McDonald, 2009;Frejka et al, 2010;Gauthier, 2016). This is especially true for Taiwanese women because childcare and housework tasks are conventionally considered as mothers' responsibilities (Cheng, 2020;Cheng and Hsu, 2020). Moreover, work-family reconciliation is weakly supported by public policies (Tsai, 2012;Gauthier, 2016).…”

“…Central to this discussion is the microlevel relationship between men's and women's employment conditions and their fertility. Despite the rapid modernisation and industrialisation in East Asia, social expectations on men's and women's work-family roles remain rigidly stratified following the Confucianism family model, where male breadwinners and female homemakers are still the norms (Bumpass et al, 2009;Cheng, 2020). Given such context, increased employment opportunities for women and the deteriorated career stability for men might contribute to the significant postponement and reduction of fertility (McDonald, 2009).…”

Un tiers des femmes d‘Asie de l’Est resteront sans enfant

“…Dans le passé, l'infécondité parmi les couples mariés était marginale, probablement proche du niveau d'infécondité biologique. Au Japon, l'infécondité parmi les femmes mariées nées [3]. Avec des horaires de travail rigides, de longues heures au travail et une discrimination généralisée des mères sur le marché de l'emploi, les femmes sont souvent confrontées à des choix difficiles entre leur vie de famille et leur carrière [5].…”