Ultra-Processed Food Intakes Are Associated with Depression in the General Population: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Abstract

Depression is the most common mental illnesses worldwide. The consumption of ultra-processed food (UPF) has increased globally due to its affordability and convenience; however, only a few studies have investigated the link between UPF intake and depression in the general population. We investigated the associations between UPF and depression using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. A total of 9463 individuals (4200 males and 5263 females) aged above 19 years old participated in this study. The prevalence of depression was identified using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Dietary intake was assessed through a 24-h recall interview. The percentage of energy from UPFs was ascertained based on the NOVA classification. The associations between the quartile ranges of UPF intake and depression were estimated using logistic regression models. Individuals in the highest quartile had a 1.40 times higher likelihood of having depression, with marginal significance (95% confidence intervals (CIs) = 1.00–1.96). In a sex-specific stratification, only females demonstrated a significant association (odds ratio (OR) = 1.51, 95% CI 1.04–2.21), even after adjusting for confounders (p-value for trend = 0.023). Our findings revealed a significant association between higher UPF intake and depression among females but not among males in the Korean general population.

Ultra-Processed Foods, Diet Quality and Human Health

“…As this association became stronger when adjusted for other confounding factors, including adherence to the Mediterranean diet as a proxy for diet quality, the authors suggest that dietary components other than nutritional quality may play a role in the reported association. Similar results were observed in the Korean population of The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, where 9463 subjects were analyzed [ 16 ]. However, in a sex-specific stratification, only women showed a significant association between higher UPF consumption and depression.…”

Nutritional Criminology: Why the Emerging Research on Ultra-Processed Food Matters to Health and Justice

“…Part of this discourse has included emerging evidence pointing toward the addictive potential of ultra-processed foods [19][20][21]. Less attention has been paid to the growing relevance the nutrition sciences have to the behavioral sciences-research linking ultra-processed foods to mental disorders and various neuropsychiatric outcomes, including depression, anxiety [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30], and antisocial and/or aggressive behavior [31][32][33][34][35][36][37] (Figure 1). The extent to which industry is responsible for promoting noncommunicable diseases, including mental disorders and addiction to ultra-processed food-like products, is described by criminal justice researchers under the banner of 'food crime' [38,39].…”

Common mental disorders in Brazilian adolescents: association with school characteristics, consumption of ultra-processed foods and waist-to-height ratio

“…The scientific literature has explored the association between ultra-processed foods and mental health in adults 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 and adolescents 18 , 19 . Studies have suggested that the consumption of ultra-processed foods may be associated with mental disorders 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 .…”

“…The scientific literature has explored the association between ultra-processed foods and mental health in adults 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 and adolescents 18 , 19 . Studies have suggested that the consumption of ultra-processed foods may be associated with mental disorders 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 . However, regardless of the design, these studies only considered the intake of ultra-processed foods, without considering other food environment factors.…”