Umweltgeologie

Hilberg, Sylke

doi:10.1007/978-3-662-46948-4

Cited by 11 publications

(4 citation statements)

References 5 publications

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“…Perhaps even to the surprise of Himmler and Heydrich, the German security forces and their Eastern European collaborators ended up exterminating about 1.4 million Jews. 144 In his summary of these events, Friedländer captures this almost exponential escalation in death rates and the ongoing mystery surrounding them:…”

Section: The Holocaust By Bullets Continuesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Operation Barbarossa and the Holocaust by Bullets—Top-Down Forces

Russell

2018

Understanding Willing Participants, Volume 2

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This chapter explores the top-down forces utilized by the SS leadership to encourage ordinary and moderately antisemitic Germans to participate in the genocide of Jewish men, then women, and finally all Jews, including children and babies. It delineates the SS leadership's central role in driving the extermination of Soviet Jewry. This chapter supports the previous argument that before the campaign, the SS leadership desired, but did not directly order, the extermination of Soviet Jewry. More specifically, because ordinary Germans had participated in the killings of fairly large numbers of "Untermenschen" over the previous few years, the SS leadership suspected before Operation Barbarossa that their men might willingly exterminate every Soviet Jew encountered. They could not, however, be certain, and consequently, they felt it unwise to set out by issuing direct orders. Instead, during the invasion Himmler and Heydrich planned to do all they could to socially engineer their desirethe so-called Führer's wish-into reality. I would argue that the SS leadership's rational intention to convert Hitler's desires into reality shares some similarity with the initially uncertain Milgram where, while inventing his baseline procedure, he did all he could to maximize his participants' participation in harm doing. But if, from the start of the Soviet campaign, there were no direct official orders to kill all Jews, then the "staggering…speed with which the wave of mass murder gathered pace" remains a mystery. 1 The next two chapters aim to shed some new light on this mystery. This depressing chapter in history begins with the so-called Holocaust by bullets. CHAPTER 4 Operation Barbarossa and the Holocaust by Bullets-Top-Down Forces

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Section: The Holocaust By Bullets Continuesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Operation Barbarossa and the Holocaust by Bullets—Top-Down Forces

Russell

2018

Understanding Willing Participants, Volume 2

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“…206 Approximately 600,000 were killed at Belzec, 207 250,000 at Sobibor, 208 and between 700,000 and 800,000 at Treblinka. 209 Operation Reinhard also proved highly profitable: After deportation and extermination costs, it has conservatively been estimated that almost 179 million Reichsmarks were diverted into the Nazi coffers 210 -money then pumped into the Nazi war machine. 211 And unlike the labor-intensive mass shootings, "these three huge extermination factories in which approximately one-third of all Nazi genocide victims were murdered, were never operated by more than a little over 100 German camp officials."…”

Section: The Emergence Of Operation Reinhardmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Rise of Operation Reinhard

Russell

2018

Understanding Willing Participants, Volume 2

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In this chapter, Russell details what evolved into the large-scale gassing programs in the East, with a particular emphasis on Operation Reinhard—the extermination of Jews in the city ghettos of the General Government. What follows shares much in common with the pattern of escalation depicted in the previous chapters: initially low rates of killing, top-down pressure to increase those rates, the application of formal rationality from the bottom-up (increased experimentation, bureaucratization, and the honing of a less stressful killing process), resulting in increased kill rates that only served to stimulate new top-down pressures to meet new and even more ambitious goals, thus occasioning an ever-expanding cycle of destruction.

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“…Som anført ovenfor sandsynliggør det ligeledes, at korsmønterne er praegede i selve Hedeby som en fortsaettelse af byens udmøntning. 25 Det nye detektorfundsmateriale synes derimod ved første øjekast ikke at kunne bekraefte det hermed tegnede billede. Tolkningen af dette materiale er imidlertid foreløbig, da bestemmelsesarbejdet som naevnt endnu ikke er afsluttet.…”

Section: Møntbrug I Hedebyunclassified

Hedeby og den danske kongemagt i 900-tallet – Mønternes udsagn

Moesgaard¹

2012

Kuml

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Haithabu and the Danish monarchy in the 10th centuryNumismatic evidenceIn the 10th century, Haithabu and its environs constituted a numismatic enclave with its own coinage used by number rather than by weight. This is apparent both from hoards located in the town’s hinterland and single finds from the town itself. In these, local coins – imitations of Charlemagne’s coins from Dorestad – dominate in the form of intact speciments that are neither bent nor tested. At that time in Scandinavia and Baltic area it was the norm to use silver as payment by weight. Ornaments and coins from many different origins were used and these were cut up to give the required weight; the quality of the metal was tested by bending and nicking and pecking. Finds of Islamic dirhams and characteristic balance weights for weighing silver do, however, show that this latter usage of coins also took place in the Schlei area and Haithabu. Unfortunately, it is not possible to determine from the archaeological record whether these two ways of using coins and silver reflect two chronological phases or, alternatively, two coeval parallel spheres of coin usage – one internal with exclusive use of its own coinage and one external with acceptance of silver according to weight, when trading with foreign merchants.Over the past decade, excavations and metal-detector surveys in Haithabu have yielded several speciments of Danish king Harald Bluetooth’s characteristic cross-motif coin from AD 975/980-985/990, which was previously conspicuous by its absence. These new finds show that, in Haithabu, cross-motif coins fulfilled the function of local coinage used by number following cessation of minting of the earlier Carolus-Dorestad imitations. These cross-motif coins must, accordingly, have been struck in Haithabu itself.The distribution of records of cross-motif coins across the rest of Denmark suggests that Harald used this coinage as gifts to his nobles and, accordingly, it symbolises the king. It is not simply happenstance that Christian symbols occupy a prominent position on the coin motif. The coins were used to spread and promote the new religion. Consequently, the king himself must be presumed to have been the issuing power. In turn, this means that the place where the coins were minted – Haithabu – must have been under Danish control at that particular time. So the hypothesis of German rule in Haithabu during the period AD 974-983 is no longer tenable. It also means that the coinage which supplied Haithabu’s well-organised coin economy at that time was under the king’s control. As it is well documented for later periods, the king probably demanded a fee for exchange to this coinage and thereby generated an income.Two small hoards from Nonnebakken in Odense suggest that Harald also controlled coin production in Haithabu prior to AD 975/980. These consist largely of Carolus-Dorestad imitations minted in Haithabu, and their find circumstances suggest that they could represent royal payments in connection with construction of the ring fortress. However, this hypothesis builds on a flimsy foundation. Hopefully, new finds will allow it to be confirmed or refuted. At that time, the minting of Carolus-Dorestad imitations was in a lamentable state both technically and in terms of weight, and Harald’s introduction of the cross-motif coin can be perceived as a reform with the intention of re-establishing the good standard.The sources do not permit us to ascertain whether coinage in Haithabu prior to the 10th century was under the control of the king or the merchants. As mentioned above, the coins were used by Haithabu’s merchants in the town’s well-organised coin economy. There are historical parallels to both the town producing its own coins and to royal control, making it difficult to choose between the two possibilities. The coins found their way to other parts of Denmark but did not achieve a dominant status until around AD 975. The archaeological record also shows that they were simply used here in the same way as any other type of coin in the predominant metal-weight economy. Consequently, the Danish monarchy probably did not favour their overall distribution at this time.Jens Christian MoesgårdNationalmuseet

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Umweltgeologie

Cited by 11 publications

References 5 publications

Operation Barbarossa and the Holocaust by Bullets—Top-Down Forces

Operation Barbarossa and the Holocaust by Bullets—Top-Down Forces

The Rise of Operation Reinhard

Hedeby og den danske kongemagt i 900-tallet – Mønternes udsagn

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