Underperformance of African Protected Area Networks and the Case for New Conservation Models: Insights from Zambia

Abstract

Many African protected areas (PAs) are not functioning effectively. We reviewed the performance of Zambia’s PA network and provide insights into how their effectiveness might be improved. Zambia’s PAs are under-performing in ecological, economic and social terms. Reasons include: a) rapidly expanding human populations, poverty and open-access systems in Game Management Areas (GMAs) resulting in widespread bushmeat poaching and habitat encroachment; b) underfunding of the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) resulting in inadequate law enforcement; c) reliance of ZAWA on extracting revenues from GMAs to cover operational costs which has prevented proper devolution of user-rights over wildlife to communities; d) on-going marginalization of communities from legal benefits from wildlife; e) under-development of the photo-tourism industry with the effect that earnings are limited to a fraction of the PA network; f) unfavourable terms and corruption which discourage good practice and adequate investment by hunting operators in GMAs; g) blurred responsibilities regarding anti-poaching in GMAs resulting in under-investment by all stakeholders. The combined effect of these challenges has been a major reduction in wildlife densities in most PAs and the loss of habitat in GMAs. Wildlife fares better in areas with investment from the private and/or NGO sector and where human settlement is absent. There is a need for: elevated government funding for ZAWA; greater international donor investment in protected area management; a shift in the role of ZAWA such that they focus primarily on national parks while facilitating the development of wildlife-based land uses by other stakeholders elsewhere; and new models for the functioning of GMAs based on joint-ventures between communities and the private and/or NGO sector. Such joint-ventures should provide defined communities with ownership of land, user-rights over wildlife and aim to attract long-term private/donor investment. These recommendations are relevant for many of the under-funded PAs occurring in other African countries.

Trends in Illegal Killing of African Elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Luangwa and Zambezi Ecosystems of Zambia

“…Based on Zambia's wildlife legislation, illegal killing and trafficking of elephants attract penalties not less than 5 years and 7 years respectively and not exceeding a term of imprisonment of 20 years and 25 years respectively, without the option of a fine. Law enforcement efforts are undermined by funding shortages for protected area management (Lindsey et al 2014), and by low salaries for law enforcement officers, which makes them vulnerable to being coerced into assisting ivory traders. Such factors may compromise the effectiveness of enforcement systems designed to save charismatic species (Bennett, 2011).…”

“…In the national parks, this would require elevated funding for Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) or co-management through partnerships between ZAWA, Non-Governmental Organisations and private sector. Wildlife populations in protected areas in Zambia with co-management agreements in place appear to be faring better than in parks without such support (Lindsey et al 2014). There is currently co-management in place for North Luangwa and Lower Zambezi National Parks, and support is provided to ZAWA for law enforcement by an NGO in South Luangwa National Park.…”

Effects of a protection gradient on carnivore density and survival: an example with leopards in the Luangwa valley, Zambia

“…2013, 2014; Lindsey et al. 2014). The effects of anthropogenic activities on protected leopard populations have been investigated in several ecosystems across their distribution (Balme et al.…”

A categorisation and evaluation of rhino management policies

“…Recent studies have indicated that while African protected areas have generally been successful in maintaining habitats, they have been less successful in mitigating the effect of human-induced declines in large mammal populations (Craigie et al 2010;Geldman et al 2013;Lindsey et al 2014). The improvement of protected areas networks, for example through the enforcement of private property rights, is crucial to ensure the sustainability of species populations.…”