Understanding Antibiotic Usage on Small-Scale Dairy Farms in the Indian States of Assam and Haryana Using a Mixed-Methods Approach—Outcomes and Challenges

Abstract

The use and misuse of antibiotics in both humans and animals contributes to the global emergence of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria, a threat to public health and infection control. Currently, India is the world’s leading milk producer but antibiotic usage within the dairy sector is poorly regulated. Little data exists reflecting how antibiotics are used on dairy farms, especially on small-scale dairy farms in India. To address this lack of data, a study was carried out on 491 small-scale dairy farms in two Indian states, Assam and Haryana, using a mixed method approach where farmers were interviewed, farms inspected for the presence of antibiotics and milk samples taken to determine antibiotic usage. Usage of antibiotics on farms appeared low only 10% (95% CI 8–13%) of farmers surveyed confirmed using antibiotics in their dairy herds during the last 12 months. Of the farms surveyed, only 8% (6–11%) had milk samples positive for antibiotic residues, namely from the novobiocin, macrolides, and sulphonamide classes of antibiotics. Of the farmers surveyed, only 2% (0.8–3%) had heard of the term “withdrawal period” and 53% (40–65%) failed to describe the term “antibiotic”. While this study clearly highlights a lack of understanding of antibiotics among small-scale dairy farmers, a potential factor in the emergence of AMR bacteria, it also shows that antibiotic usage on these farms is low and that the possible role these farmers play in AMR emergence may be overestimated.

A scoping review of antibiotic use practices and drivers of inappropriate antibiotic use in animal farms in WHO Southeast Asia region

“…Seven reports were excluded: one was a literature review of drivers of AMR [ 33 ]; one included domestic animals instead of farm animals [ 34 ]; three reports were indirect methods of quantification of ABU/AMR [ 20 , 35 , 36 ]; and two articles were conference reports [ 37 , 38 ]. Seventeen studies, described in 18 publications [ [39] , [40] , [41] , [42] , [43] , [44] , [45] , [46] , [47] , [48] , [49] , [50] , [51] , [52] , [53] , [54] , [55] , [56] ], were included in the scoping review.

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Histidine Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for Screening Aminoglycosides and Nanomolar Level Detection of Streptomycin in Water, Milk, and Whey

“…Contaminated dairy products with AMG antibiotics are of health concern [86][87][88][89], which attracted public attention from different parts of the world [90,91]. We apply our method to detect streptomycin spiked milk samples to assess the practical applicability of His@AuNPs.…”

Comparing the Effectiveness of Different Approaches to Raise Awareness About Antimicrobial Resistance in Farmers and Veterinarians of India

“…India is a country with a large livestock population ( 12 , 13 ). Antibiotics are extensively misused in the dairy sector and residues remain largely untested in milk, which is an essential part of Indian diets ( 8 , 14 , 15 ). Antibiotics are commonly used as growth promoters in livestock, such as poultry, however the real extent of this practice is unknown.…”

“…There is a lack of evidence regarding the extent to which farmers are aware about the effects of antibiotic use, its residues, and resistance. Nevertheless, a few studies have revealed a poor level of knowledge among the dairy farmers about both antimicrobial residues and resistance ( 14 , 18 , 19 ). It has been observed that some farmers treat their animals with antibiotics regardless of whether the disease is caused by bacteria or not, and often they are not even aware that the drug is an antibiotic ( 14 ).…”

“…Nevertheless, a few studies have revealed a poor level of knowledge among the dairy farmers about both antimicrobial residues and resistance ( 14 , 18 , 19 ). It has been observed that some farmers treat their animals with antibiotics regardless of whether the disease is caused by bacteria or not, and often they are not even aware that the drug is an antibiotic ( 14 ). Sick animals are usually treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics based on personal experience or through social peer learning networks, such as elders or influential farmers who have successfully treated their livestock in the past ( 18 ).…”