Understanding Difficulties and Resulting Confusion in Learning: An Integrative Review

Abstract

Difficulties are often an unavoidable but important part of the learning process. This seems particularly so for complex conceptual learning. Challenges in the learning process are however, particularly difficult to detect and respond to in educational environments where growing class sizes and the increased use of digital technologies mean that teachers are unable to provide nuanced and personalized feedback and support to help students overcome their difficulties. Individual differences, the specifics of the learning activity, and the difficulty of giving individual feedback in large classes and digital environments all add to the challenge of responding to student difficulties and confusion. In this integrative review, we aim to explore difficulties and resulting emotional responses in learning. We will review the primary principles of cognitive disequilibrium and contrast these principles with work on desirable difficulties, productive failure, impasse driven learning, and pure discovery-based learning. We conclude with a theoretical model of the zones of optimal and sub-optimal confusion as a way of conceptualizing the parameters of productive and non-productive difficulties experienced by students while they learn.

The ubiquity of uncertainty: a scoping review on how undergraduate health professions’ students engage with uncertainty

“…The included studies say less on the benefits of engaging with uncertainty. One study (Friary et al 2018 ) proposes that “some uncertainty or stress is needed to shift learning to a new level.” This is supported in the educational literature, where there is a growing recognition that experiences of uncertainty are important catalysts for deeper learning (Overoye and Storm 2015 ; Lodge et al 2018 ). However, the authors highlight that uncertainty is only “productive” under certain circumstance i.e., when it does not undermine trust and confidence.…”

Exploring the usage of thermal imaging for understanding video lecture designs and students' experiences

“…Several competing theories have been forwarded to explain difficulties in the learning process in digital environments. Of these theories, 'cognitive load theory' (CLT) and 'cognitive theory of multimedia learning' (CTML) are the most dominant [28]. Researchers have used CLT and CTML as tools for describing the ways through which videos may assist or hinder students' learning.…”

How to optimize knowledge construction in the brain

“…Finally, we will reflect on possible future steps in knowledge construction research, as well as applications for situations where such processes plays a pivotal role, such as in educational settings 14 . We will revisit commonly used study techniques like retrieval practice 5 , spaced learning 18 , and desirable difficulties 19 and place them in a neural context. Also, we discuss possible means to avoid the emergence of false memories and misconceptions, which signify a major burden for learning in educational situations.…”