Understanding spirit possession in the Philippines: a social representations approach

Albularyo Folk Healing: Cultural Beliefs on Healthcare Management in Partido District, Camarines Sur, Philippines

“…Similarly, Charing (2017) describes mangkukulam as a paid person to do kulam by a person who hold grudges to another person. Ang and Montiel (2019), further, referred kulam as a possession where managkukulam command spirits to possess an individual. Albularyo, on the other hand, denies performing kulam because it deters their calling to heal.…”

Falling behind and forgotten: The impact of acculturation and spirituality on the mental health help-seeking behavior of Filipinos in the USA.

“…Animism, derived from the Latin word anima meaning “soul,” is theorized by Tylor (1871) as a form of religion based on a belief of an inherent spiritual principle in humans. Anitismo is derived from the word anito which can take on various meanings such as “ancestral spirit” (Hislop, 1971), “supernatural beings” (Macdonald, 2004), “lower creatures” (Covar, 1975), and “lesser spirits” (Ang & Montiel, 2019). Rather than in a temple or other typical place of worship, anitism is a home-centered spiritual practice that consists of elements of animism and beliefs and practices such as invoking, adoring, and worshiping anitos (Covar, 1975; Hislop, 1971).…”

“…Spiritual beings and humans with supernatural abilities are believed to have benevolent and malevolent powers. Examples of Indigenous Filipino spiritual beliefs in such entities include bathala as “supreme God”; diwata as “divinities” or “celestial beings”; anito as “supernatural beings,” “lower creatures,” or “lesser spirits”; aswang as a “shapeshifter,” “bad spirit,” “vampire,” or “witch”; duwende as a “dwarf” or “elf”; kapre as a “tree giant”; and engkanto as a “supernatural being” (Ang & Montiel, 2019; Covar, 1975; Gingrich, 2006; Go, 1979; Macdonald, 2004). Closely tied to these spiritual beliefs are Indigenous Filipino spiritual practices, such as: receiving treatment from a babaylan as “shaman” or “medium”; treatment by an arbularyo as “herb doctor” or “herbalist”; experiencing kulam as “witchcraft” or “spiritual possession”; using patawas , as “hydrated potassium aluminum sulfate” for medicinal or diagnostic purposes; receiving hilot as a form of “massage” for ailments involving skeletal and muscle systems; and experiencing usog as a “hex” or “affliction” from having encountered a stranger (Agger et al, 2012; Ang & Montiel, 2019; Balilla et al, 2014; Dapar & Alejandro, 2020; Del Fierro & Nolasco, 2013; Tan, 2008).…”

“…Examples of Indigenous Filipino spiritual beliefs in such entities include bathala as “supreme God”; diwata as “divinities” or “celestial beings”; anito as “supernatural beings,” “lower creatures,” or “lesser spirits”; aswang as a “shapeshifter,” “bad spirit,” “vampire,” or “witch”; duwende as a “dwarf” or “elf”; kapre as a “tree giant”; and engkanto as a “supernatural being” (Ang & Montiel, 2019; Covar, 1975; Gingrich, 2006; Go, 1979; Macdonald, 2004). Closely tied to these spiritual beliefs are Indigenous Filipino spiritual practices, such as: receiving treatment from a babaylan as “shaman” or “medium”; treatment by an arbularyo as “herb doctor” or “herbalist”; experiencing kulam as “witchcraft” or “spiritual possession”; using patawas , as “hydrated potassium aluminum sulfate” for medicinal or diagnostic purposes; receiving hilot as a form of “massage” for ailments involving skeletal and muscle systems; and experiencing usog as a “hex” or “affliction” from having encountered a stranger (Agger et al, 2012; Ang & Montiel, 2019; Balilla et al, 2014; Dapar & Alejandro, 2020; Del Fierro & Nolasco, 2013; Tan, 2008). The continued pervasiveness of Indigenous Filipino spirituality, despite hundreds of years of colonization and the continued influence of postcolonialism, can also be observed in how these Indigenous spiritual beliefs and practices have developed and integrated within other major religions in the Philippines such as “folk Catholicism” and “folk Islam” (Ang & Montiel, 2019; Domingo, 2009; Go, 1979; Macdonald, 2004; Vergote, 1982; Williams, 1997).…”

“…Closely tied to these spiritual beliefs are Indigenous Filipino spiritual practices, such as: receiving treatment from a babaylan as “shaman” or “medium”; treatment by an arbularyo as “herb doctor” or “herbalist”; experiencing kulam as “witchcraft” or “spiritual possession”; using patawas , as “hydrated potassium aluminum sulfate” for medicinal or diagnostic purposes; receiving hilot as a form of “massage” for ailments involving skeletal and muscle systems; and experiencing usog as a “hex” or “affliction” from having encountered a stranger (Agger et al, 2012; Ang & Montiel, 2019; Balilla et al, 2014; Dapar & Alejandro, 2020; Del Fierro & Nolasco, 2013; Tan, 2008). The continued pervasiveness of Indigenous Filipino spirituality, despite hundreds of years of colonization and the continued influence of postcolonialism, can also be observed in how these Indigenous spiritual beliefs and practices have developed and integrated within other major religions in the Philippines such as “folk Catholicism” and “folk Islam” (Ang & Montiel, 2019; Domingo, 2009; Go, 1979; Macdonald, 2004; Vergote, 1982; Williams, 1997). Other non-Catholic Christian religions, such as Protestantism and evangelical groups born out of the influence of American colonization were also not impervious to syncretism with Indigenous Filipino beliefs.…”