Underwater cultural heritage and the disputed South China Sea

Abstract

Due to unsolved maritime delimitations, the protection of underwater cultural heritage (hereafter underwater heritage) in the South China Sea demands coordinated action by neighbouring states. However, the suspicion that China uses underwater heritage to justify its interests has tempered the general enthusiasm of its neighbours to cooperate in the issue of heritage protection. In the face of such concerns, this article examines the role of underwater heritage in China’s South China Sea claims, and it argues that underwater heritage provides little support to underpin China’s territorial or maritime claims. In addition, China’s initiatives in maritime archaeology have long been misinterpreted. Instead of being entirely driven by its South China Sea claims, China’s approach to underwater heritage is a natural result of its general policy on cultural heritage and nation-building philosophy.

Inventing the ‘Maritime Silk Road’

“…72 A good overview of these claims and disputes is found in Hayton (2014). 73 See Zhong (2020aZhong ( , 2020b emphasis on cultural understanding and collaborative explorations of underwater archaeology in the South China Sea. Most recently, Hui Zhong (2020a: 371), critical of the nationalist statements made by Liu Shuguang and others, pointed out that 'China's underwater heritage is closely related to the nation-building task of enhancing "cultural confidence"'.…”

“…A number of publications invoked the ‘Maritime Silk Road’ idea, particularly its twenty-first century manifestation, as a solution to territorial disputes through an emphasis on cultural understanding and collaborative explorations of underwater archaeology in the South China Sea. Most recently, Hui Zhong (2020a: 371), critical of the nationalist statements made by Liu Shuguang and others, pointed out that ‘China’s underwater heritage is closely related to the nation-building task of enhancing “cultural confidence”’. Reflecting the views of those advocating cultural understanding, he writes: Chinese underwater heritage not only evokes China’s primacy of place in ancient times, but also buttresses the country’s great goal of national rejuvenation in the new era.…”

“…China’s underwater heritage can forge pride and unity among its citizens, which is consistent with the country’s re-emergence as a significant power in world trade. (Zhong 2020a: 371)…”

The geocultural heritage of the Silk Roads

“…In Southeast Asia, the Maritime Silk Road is now being forged around a material culture of historic port cities, sea goddess statues, temples, manuscripts, ceramics, shipwrecks and such like. Since the launch of Belt and Road, we have seen a significant increase in interest in underwater cultural heritage, with China collaborating with Greece, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Tunisia, in the search for shipwrecks and artefacts (Blussé 2018;Zhong 2020). India and Indonesia are among those countries where governments are encouraging and funding heritage agencies to invest in maritime histories that counter the Maritime Silk Road narrative.…”

Comparison between the Employment of a Multibeam Echosounder on an Unmanned Surface Vehicle and Traditional Photogrammetry as Techniques for Documentation and Monitoring of Shallow-Water Cultural Heritage Sites: A Case Study in the Bay of Algeciras

“…These impacts can be more severe in shallow water, where cultural heritage sites are most vulnerable to natural and human-induced impacts, making it critical to document and monitor them over time. Multibeam Echosounders (MBES) and photogrammetry are two techniques commonly used for mapping and documenting underwater sites [25,26]. While MBES provides a detailed digital terrain model of the seabed and can be installed in a USV, photogrammetry performed by divers can provide the highest resolution data on objects and structures.…”