Unique effects of setting goals on behavior change: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Abstract

Objective: Goal setting is a common feature of behavior change interventions, but it is unclear when goal setting is optimally effective. The aims of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to evaluate: (a) the unique effects of goal setting on behavior change, and (b) under what circumstances and for whom goal setting works best.Method: Four databases were searched for papers that assessed the unique effects of goal setting on behavior change using randomized controlled trials. 141 papers were identified from which 384 effect sizes (N = 16,523) were extracted and analyzed. A moderator analysis of sample characteristics, intervention characteristics, inclusion of other behavior change techniques, study design and delivery, quality of study, outcome measures and behavior targeted was conducted.Results: A random effects model indicated a small positive unique effect of goal setting across a range of behaviors, d = .34 (CI = .28 to .41). Moderator analyses indicated that goal setting was particularly effective if the goal was: (a) difficult, (b) set publicly, and (c) was a group goal. There was weaker evidence that goal setting was more effective when paired with external monitoring of the behavior/ outcome by others without feedback and delivered face-to-face. Conclusions: Goal setting is an effective behavior change technique thathas the potential to be considered a fundamental component of successful interventions. The present review adds novel insights into the means by which goal setting might be augmented to maximize behavior change and sets the agenda for future programs of research.2 KEYWORDS: goal setting, behavior change, randomized controlled trials, metaanalysis, systematic review Public Health SignificanceThe findings reported in the present review show that goal setting is an effective behavior change technique that can be considered a fundamental component of successful behavior change interventions.Findings suggest that optimally goals should be: (a) difficult but achievable, (b) set publicly, (c) set face to face, (d) set as a group goal and (e) set without drawing attention to goal commitment. There is also some indication that goal setting is particular effective in certain samples (i.e., school children, general population, male, younger people and those of Asian ethnicity) in particular settings (i.e., schools and workplaces). 3 Unique Effects of Goal Setting on Behavior Change: Systematic Review and Meta-AnalysisA goal is "the object or aim of an action" (Locke & Latham, 2002, p. 705) and goal setting is one of the fundamental techniques that public bodies and government agencies recommend to promote behavior change (e.g., NICE, 2014; NHBLI, 2000). Goal setting is considered to be a key element in helping individuals to regulate their own behavior and has been used in numerous fields including education (e.g., Bandura & Schunk, 1981), sport (e.g., Anshel, Weinberg & Jackson, 1992), health (e.g., Alexy, 1985), social behaviors (e.g., Madera, King & Hebl, 2013), product...

‘It's an important part, but I am not quite sure that it is working’: educators’ perspectives on the implementation of goal‐setting within the ‘DAFNE’ diabetes structured education programme

“…This perspective is in line with findings from a recent systematic review, indicating that goal-setting was more effective if goals were set publicly and face-to-face, as opposed to individually or by a computerized method [11]. Educators highlighted that a group format impacts goal-setting practices and felt that sharing goals and experiences was valuable for participants.…”

“…One vital change has been the increased emphasis on patient-centred and collaborative approaches to education [6], supplementing historical approaches that centred on the provision of information [7]. Goal-setting, problem-solving and planning are seen as important strategies in enhancing people's autonomy, and automating future responses [9], which can facilitate long-term behaviour change if implemented correctly [10,11]. Goal-setting, problem-solving and planning are seen as important strategies in enhancing people's autonomy, and automating future responses [9], which can facilitate long-term behaviour change if implemented correctly [10,11].…”

“…As part of this movement, DSME has introduced behaviour change strategies such as goal-setting and actionplanning [6], with goal-setting being identified as a core component across DSME programmes [8]. Goal-setting, problem-solving and planning are seen as important strategies in enhancing people's autonomy, and automating future responses [9], which can facilitate long-term behaviour change if implemented correctly [10,11]. Incorporating behaviour change strategies within DSME programmes, however, is not sufficient to ensure programme effectiveness [12].…”

‘It's difficult, I think it's complicated’: Health care professionals’ barriers and enablers to providing opportunistic behaviour change interventions during routine medical consultations

“…Irreducible active components of behaviour change interventions (Epton, Currie, & Armitage, ; Michie & Johnston, ) or ‘behaviour change techniques’ (BCTs) were then extrapolated from the findings. We provide illustrative examples in order to demonstrate how BCTs can be operationalized as part of interventions to increase health care professionals’ delivery of opportunistic behaviour change interventions (Michie et al ., ).…”

From intention to action: A mixed methods study of clients’ experiences of goal‐oriented practices

“…Goal agreement is also a key component of the working alliance (Bordin, ); a central focus across therapies and one of the most robust predictors of therapeutic outcomes (Fluckiger, Del Re, Wampold & Horvath, ; Zilcha‐Mano, ). In addition, goal setting is one of the most commonly used techniques in the wider behavioral change field (Epton, Currie, & Armitage, ) and is closely associated with contemporary shared decision‐making practices (e.g., The Health Foundation, ), in which service users and professionals work together to identify the desired outcomes of the intervention.…”