“…These results, together with similar findings from previous studies in different languages (e.g., Deng et al, 2015 ; Inoue et al, 2018a , b ; Silinskas et al, 2021 ), suggest that the effect of PT and SBR may be time-sensitive and reduced as children exposed to formal literacy instruction. According to the Home Literacy Model ( Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2002 ; Sénéchal, 2006 ), code-related (formal) activities (i.e., teaching of letters and words) have been found to predict word reading through its effects on letter knowledge, and meaning-related (informal) activities (i.e., shared book reading) have been to predict word reading through its effects on vocabulary and phonological awareness (e.g., Sénéchal, 2006 ; Silinskas et al, 2010b ; Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2014 ; Torppa et al, 2022 ; Zhang et al, 2023 ). In Japan, it is possible that the effects of PT be limited, especially after schooling, because most children acquire letter knowledge before schooling.…”