Urban Agricultural Activities and Women's Strategies in Sustaining Family Livelihoods in Harare, Zimbabwe

Abstract

The growing of crops on open and undeveloped spaces within urban zones in eastern and southern African cities has become an important source of food security. Urban populations have expanded without a corresponding increase in economic opportunities for employment. Economic reforms have led to the removal of subsidies on food commodities and retrenchments in the formal employment sectors. It is reported that a result of this is that vulnerable households have resorted to urban agriculture to sustain their livelihoods. Though a widespread practice, urban agriculture is not planned for or supported by urban planners and managers as a legitimate form of urban land use in Harare, Zimbabwe. As women are the main participants in urban agriculture, their activities come into direct conflict with planning provisions for urban space. This study examines the role of women in urban agriculture and views and perceptions of the use of urban space for agricultural activities in Harare. It shows that urban agriculture is useful in meeting household food needs by those who undertake it. The study offers empirical insight on the perceptions of the use of space in an urban tropical environment for agriculture, where conflicts can arise as a result of different perceptions and alternative uses.

A systematic review of urban agriculture and food security impacts in low-income countries

“…In fact, just 26% of female respondents (compared to 90% of males) were employed. UA served as a means to utilize women's labor to produce food and income (Mudimu, 1996). Other studies have distinguished between urban farming systems, revealing that women tend to participate in crop and poultry production, whereas men are the ones primarily responsible for other livestock production (Akegbejo-Samsons, 2008; Okezie et al, 2008).…”

“…Male-headed households consumed larger percentage of food produced than female-headed households (79% vs. 11%); high-income households consumed larger proportion than low-income households (75% vs. 34%) -Interviews, focus groups, and workshops Female-headed households derived more income from UA than male-headed households Mudimu (1996) Harare, Zimbabwe (1995)(1996) -Structured cross-sectional survey of a non-representative sample of cultivators (n = 480) 70% of participants indicated that growing food was chief motivation for UA, followed by saving money on food (13%) and generating income (13%) -Descriptive analysis Ngome and Foeken (2012) Buea, Cameroon (2006-2007) -Cross-sectional survey of gardeners (n = 200) recruited through snowball sampling Supplementing household food supply motivation for UA for married (89%) and unmarried (79%) women; percentages for married (51%) and unmarried (69%) men lower but still a majority -Comparisons between males and females using descriptive analysis, chi-square tests, and Mann-Whitney U tests Generating income an important motivation for married and unmarried men (62% for both), yet a much more common motivation for unmarried women than married women (74% vs. 33%) Nearly 66% believed their own garden was the most important source for protein and calories; though more females considered this to be true (92% vs. 35%) Okezie et al (2008) Uyo, Nigeria (2006 -Two-round structured survey of households (n = 85) selected through stratified and purposive sampling Primary motivations for engaging in UA were household consumption and generating income; main goals differed depending on type of farming system -Descriptive analysis On average, UA responsible for about 32% of annual household income (range: 8-73%) Sanyal (1985) Lusaka, Zambia (1980) -Cross-sectional survey of randomly selected low-income households (n = 250) Plot gardens and rainy-season gardens cultivated by 40% and 25% of families, respectively; 60% cultivated one or both types; 19% cultivated both (continued on next page)…”

Does Urban Agriculture help improve women`s resilience to poverty? Evidence from low- income generating women in Bulawayo

“…This supposedly gender-neutral term suggests an undifferentiated urban dweller who engages in agriculture yet is undoubtedly based on a masculinised norm. However, recent studies document women"s predominance in the African context (Cockram and Feldman, 1996;Smit, Ratta and Bernstein, 1996), and particularly in the Central African Republic (Alaruka and Choma, 1985), Kenya (Mwangi, 1998, Lee Smith and Memon, 1993, Mazingira Institute, 1987, Mozambique ( Loforte, 1987), Tanzania (Tripp, 1997;Mlozi, 1995), Uganda (Maxwell, 1995; Maxwell, 1994; Maxwell and Zziwa, 1990), Zambia (Drescher, 1997;Drescher and Bos, 1993;Rakodi, 1988), and Zimbabwe (Chaipa and King, 1997;Mudimu, 1996;Mbiba, 1995;Mbiba, 1993). Thailand (Evers and Korff, 1996), and the United States (Hynes, 1996) also points to the dominance of women farmers in urban areas.…”

“…Thailand (Evers and Korff, 1996), and the United States (Hynes, 1996) also points to the dominance of women farmers in urban areas. Women urban dwellers play pivotal roles in subsistence and market gardening, animal husbandry, food processing, waste recycling and (re)use.The predominance of urban women farmers in many contexts is attributed to two factors: First, women continue to bear primary responsibility for household sustenance and well-being (Mudimu, 1996), largely due to traditional cultural views and societal expectations (Chaipa and King, 1997). Everyday domestic tasks, including the provision of food, water, clothing, and healthcare, as well as the maintenance of a clean homestead, fall to female household members who are responsible for biological and social reproduction.…”

Who engages in urban and peri-urban agriculture in the condensed urban slums of Bangladesh?

“…UPA is roughly defined as growing food crops (such as vegetables, root and tuber crops, staple grains, and fruits) and raising domestic animals (such as poultry, cattle, swine, and goats) within and around urban areas. Various empirical studies claim that UPA has been considered a solution for improving poor living conditions in undeveloped urban and peri-urban areas of developing countries, on the grounds of its effects on improving household food and nutrition intakes (Amrullah et al, 2017;Bhatta et al, 2008;Bukusuba et al, 2007;Dossa et al, 2011;Gallaher et al, 2013a;Lynch et al, 2013;Smart et al, 2015;Zezza and Tasciotti, 2010) and the physique of a child (Maxwell, 1995;Maxwell et al, 1998), increasing or diversifying household income (Amrullah et al, 2017;Ashebir et al, 2007;Maxwell, 1995;Smart et al, 2015;Zezza and Tasciotti, 2010), providing remunerative economic activities for women (Mudimu, 1996;Maxwell, 1995), empowering women through economic independence (Gororo and Kashangura, 2016;Masvaure, 2015;Simiyu and Foeken, 2014), and accumulating social capital (Gallaher et al, 2013a).…”