Urban Air Pollution and Health Inequities: A Workshop Report

Abstract

General overview of health effects research.The evidence on the health effects of air pollution has been summarized in a state-of-theart review (8,9) and a recent monograph (10), as well as in two recent U.S. EPA criteria Over the past three decades, an array of legislation with attendant regulations has been implemented to enhance the quality of the environment and thereby improve the public's health. Despite the many beneficial changes that have followed, there remains a disproportionately higher prevalence of harmful environmental exposures, particularly air pollution, for certain populations. These populations most often reside in urban settings, have low socioeconomic status, and include a large proportion of ethnic minorities. The disparities between racial/ethnic minority and/or lowincome populations in cities and the general population in terms of environmental exposures and related health risks have prompted the "environmental justice" or "environmental equity" movement, which strives to create cleaner environments for the most polluted communities. Achieving cleaner environments will require interventions based on scientific data specific to the populations at risk; however, research in this area has been relatively limited. To assess the current scientific information on urban air pollution and its health impacts and to help set the agenda for immediate intervention and future research, the American Lung Association organized an invited workshop on Urban Air Pollution and Health Inequities held 22-24 October 1999 in Washington, DC. This report builds on literature reviews and summarizes the discussions of working groups charged with addressing key areas relevant to air pollution and health effects in urban environments. An overview was provided of the state of the science for health impacts of air pollution and technologies available for air quality monitoring and exposure assessment. The working groups then prioritized research needs to address the knowledge gaps and developed recommendations for community interventions and public policy to begin to remedy the exposure and health inequities.

The effects of age and carbon black on airway resistance in mice

“…Previous reviews have indicated that children and the elderly are considered to be more susceptible due to immature lungs in the young and a gradual decline in physiological lung function for older adults {Association, 2001 #140;Sacks, 2011 #135}. Such differences in the lung might explain why these subpopulations have compromised pulmonary defense responses to air pollution exposure.…”

“…Based on this type of sigmoidal shape, one might expect the most susceptible older age group to be on the exponential part of the curve in the age range of 60 to 85 years old. Postulations as to why children and the elderly are considered susceptible is due to immature, developing organs for the young and a gradual decline in physiological function for older adults {Association, 2001 #140;Sacks, 2011 #135}. According to a report by the U.S. EPA, one specific change in function with age appears to be an increase in PM clearance time from the respiratory tract {EPA, 2009 #179}.…”

Effects of Particulate Matter and Antioxidant Dietary Intake on Blood Pressure

“…9,10 Non-Hispanic Blacks, Hispanics, and individuals of low income in the United States are disproportionately likely to reside in communities with excess exposure to environmental hazards, including PM 2.5 . 11-13 Continued investigation of strategies to reduce exposure to PM 2.5 , and its adverse effects on BP, are essential to efforts to reduce racial and ethnic disparities in cardiovascular risk.…”

“…Residents of urban communities of color and low-income communities are more likely to experience excess exposure to PM 2.5 . 11,42 Emerging research also suggests racial differences in oxidative stress, with persons of color experiencing higher levels. 43-45 Access to stores that sell fresh produce, an important source of dietary antioxidants, is low in some urban communities, particularly lower-income communities composed predominantly of people of color.…”

Socioeconomic and Racial Disparities in Cancer Risk from Air Toxics in Maryland

“…There is ample evidence that minority and low-income communities bear a disproportionate burden of exposure to many environmental contaminants (Brown 1995; Institute of Medicine 1999), including air pollution (Samet et al 2001; Schweitzer and Valenzuela 2004). The availability of nationwide ambient monitoring for the criteria air pollutants (carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide) makes assessment of exposure and risk in disadvantaged and minority communities particularly feasible.…”