Urban Heat Island Effects and Mitigation Strategies in Saudi Arabian Cities

Applying deep learning to manage urban ecosystems in arid Abha, Saudi Arabia: Remote sensing-based modelling for ecological condition assessment and decision-making

“…Water bodies, dense vegetation and areas with sparse vegetation are categorised as good or very good, which is consistent with the findings of Alahmadi and Atkinson [ 76 ], who observed substantial urban expansion in Saudi Arabia. This is particularly evident in Khamis Mushayet, where green areas such as agricultural land and sparse vegetation are replaced by impervious surfaces, exacerbating urban heat islands, as reported by Mohamed et al [ 74 ] and Aina et al [ 73 ] FAHP and integrated models provided similar predictions, while PCA and fuzzy logic diverged, suggesting the need for sensitivity and uncertainty analyses to address discrepancies and improve the reliability of the models [ 46 ]. Furthermore, the impact of such transitions is amplified by the geographical constraints of Abha, which limit expansion to the north and east, increasing urban density and the associated ecological footprint.…”

“…Built-up areas have the highest probability of ecological transition at 83.67%, followed by exposed rocks at 75.08%, and green areas are also at risk, with sparse vegetation at 47.80% and shrubs at 53.41% [ 72 ]. NDVI, a key measure of vegetation greening, is inversely related to LST but directly related to RSUSEI, suggesting that higher greening can mitigate urban heat islands — a phenomenon that is well documented in urban environments, including Saudi Arabian cities [ 73 , 74 ]. The NDMI, an indicator of water stress, also influences the RSUSEI, with deforestation and urban growth contributing to drier conditions and increased LST [ 75 ].…”

COP26 Visions for a Net Zero Future – Regional Profile for the Arabian Peninsula

“…Infrastructure -Solutions include flood barriers and seawalls for surge protection and stormwater drainage systems to avert flooding (e.g., major investments underway in UAE) 84,88 ; provision of affordable cooling technologies to reduce risk to health from heat stress 61 ; better building controls and more efficient cooling solutions (efficient district cooling is already well developed, but newer technologies may offer enhanced performance); higher building standards and retrofitting and modernisation of older buildings for improved energy efficiency and protection from solar gain; possible use of traditional building techniques such as wind towers to create natural cooling with lower energy demands (already demonstrated in Masdar city); green roofs and urban green infrastructure to mitigate urban heat island effects (already a feature in many of the major cities in the region and all the newer developments) [132][133][134] ; smart cities to improve the built-environment and liveability (subject to broader sustainability considerations); and eco-tourism initiatives to minimise environmental impact of new developments (e.g. Red Sea Development Project 135 ).…”

Ecological Embeddedness in the Maya Built Environment: Inspiration for Contemporary Cities

“…Urban heat islands and sprawl [15,25,26,111] Towns are medium to low density, mixed uses. Landscaping, water reservoirs, and urban agriculture are widespread, which capture carbon and absorb heat [12,105,112].…”

“…Urban heat islands, formed due to increased energy consumption from buildings, hard structures, and concentrated pavements, threaten the sustainable development of urban communities. Moreover, the lack of blue-green infrastructure leads to higher temperatures and undesired climate change [25,26].…”