Urbanicity, biological stress system functioning and mental health in adolescents

Abstract

Growing up in an urban area has been associated with an increased chance of mental health problems in adults, but less is known about this association in adolescents. We examined whether current urbanicity was associated with mental health problems directly and indirectly via biological stress system functioning. Participants (n = 323) were adolescents from the Dutch general population. Measures included home and laboratory assessments of autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning, neighborhood-level urbanicity and socioeconomic status, and mother-and adolescent selfreported mental health problems. Structural equation models showed that urbanicity was not associated with mental health problems directly. Urbanicity was associated with acute autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity such that adolescents who lived in more urban areas showed blunted biological stress reactivity. Furthermore, there was some evidence for an indirect effect of urbanicity on mother-reported behavioral problems via acute autonomic nervous system reactivity. Urbanicity was not associated with overall autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity or basal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning. Although we observed some evidence for associations between urbanicity, biological stress reactivity and mental health problems, most of the tested associations were not statistically significant. Measures of long-term biological stress system functioning may be more relevant to the study of broader environmental factors such as urbanicity.

The Relationship Between Mental Health Problems and Systemic Family Dynamics Among High School and University Students in Shaanxi Province, China

“…These results are also consistent with previous research. A harmonious family atmosphere is related to good mental health [ 39 , 40 ], while a lack of family recreational activities and poorer communication reduces mental health [ 41 ]. Less strict parental control also improves adolescent mental health [ 42 ].…”

Determinants of Chronic Biological Stress, Measured as Hair Cortisol Concentration, in a General Population of Adolescents: From Individual and Household Characteristics to Neighborhood Urbanicity

“…Moreover, urbanization is one of the dominant demographic trends in the 21 st century ( 22 ). Importantly, living in an urban area seems to be associated with an increased risk of mental health problems, compared to living in a rural area ( 19 ). Retrospective studies showed that this increased risk for mental health problems in adults may be greater for those who grew up in an urban context ( 60 , 61 ).…”

“…A Flemish study, tracking 175 children during a 3-year time period between childhood and adolescence, found that higher residential exposure to semi-natural and forested areas was associated with increased feelings of happiness, while a poorer emotional status was seen with increased residential traffic exposure ( 56 ). Chronic stress through HPA axis activation has been suggested as a potential biological mechanism, underlying the association between urbanicity and health ( 19 ). In our adolescent study population, household SES and neighborhood SES were not associated with HCC, nor was psychosocial stress.…”

“…The HCC of adolescents may also be related to their residential environment. An urban, densely populated, residential environment has been hypothesized to act as a chronic stressor, regardless of a person's individual socioeconomic position ( 19 , 20 ). Potential pathways are the social context of an urban neighborhood and a higher exposure to air pollution, noise and heat ( 21 , 22 ).…”

“…In an exploratory study among children (median age 10 years, n = 92), neighborhood urbanicity was not related to HCC ( 20 ). However, neighborhood socio-environmental influences may exert stronger effects on adolescents, compared to children ( 19 ).…”