Urinary androgen and corticoid levels in captive, male Western lowland gorillas (<i>Gorilla g. gorilla</i>): Age‐ and social group‐related differences

Stoinski, Tara S.; Czekala, Nancy M.; Lukas, Kristen E.; Maple, Terry L.

doi:10.1002/ajp.1065

Cited by 46 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…The group size effect found in orangutans is in contrast to the findings of studies with gregarious primates. When isolated, captive gorilla males and New World monkeys had elevated glucocorticoid concentrations compared to baseline concentrations measured in their social group (Hennessy 1997;Mendoza et al 2000;Stoinski et al 2002).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 86%

The Effect of Fission–Fusion Zoo Housing on Hormonal and Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)

2014

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The welfare of captive animals could be improved if zoos were to place more emphasis on their species-specific needs. In the wild, orangutans live in a fission-fusion social system and have a semisolitary lifestyle. However, most zoos keep orangutans in permanent groups, which may be stressful for them. Apenheul Primate Park in Apeldoorn, Netherlands, houses 14 Bornean orangutans in a simulated fissionfusion social system. To assess how this housing system affects indicators of stress, we measured fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM) and determined proportions of self-directed behavior (scratching and autogrooming). We compared fGCM concentrations of the Apenheul animals to those of zoo orangutans kept in permanent groups. In addition, we tested the effect of group size, visitor number, sex, age, and change of group composition on fGCM concentrations and proportions of self-directed behavior in the Apenheul orangutans. In contrast to Bornean orangutans housed in permanent groups, we did not find a group size effect on fGCM or on self-directed behavior in Apenheul's fission-fusion housing system. In addition, fGCM concentrations in Apenheul orangutans increased significantly with visitor numbers. Visitor number also affected proportions of self-directed behavior, and mean proportions of scratching were positively correlated with mean values of fGCM concentrations. Although these results suggest that the fission-fusion housing system in Apenheul reduces the group size effect leading to social stress in Bornean orangutans, they also show that visitors are an important factor that needs to be mitigated if the well-being of captive primates and other zoo animals is to be improved. Abstract The welfare of captive animals could be improved if zoos were to place more emphasis on their species-specific needs. In the wild, orangutans live in a fission-fusion social system and have a semisolitary lifestyle. However, most zoos keep orangutans in permanent groups, which may be stressful for them. Apenheul Primate Park in Apeldoorn, Netherlands, houses 14 Bornean orangutans in a simulated fission-fusion social system. To assess how this housing system affects indicators of stress, we measured fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM) and determined proportions of self-directed behavior (scratching and autogrooming). We compared fGCM concentrations of the Apenheul animals to those of zoo orangutans kept in permanent groups. In addition, we tested the effect of group size, visitor number, sex, age, and change of group composition on fGCM concentrations and proportions of self-directed behavior in the Apenheul orangutans. In contrast to Bornean orangutans housed in permanent groups, we did not find a group size effect on fGCM or on self-directed behavior in Apenheul's fissionfusion housing system. In addition, fGCM concentrations in Apenheul orangutans increased significantly with visitor numbers. Visitor number also affected proportions of self-directed behavior, and mean proportions of scratching were positively cor...

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 86%

The Effect of Fission–Fusion Zoo Housing on Hormonal and Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)

2014

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“…Preliminary evidence suggests there are few differences between males housed in bachelor groups vs. mixed-sex groups. For example, Stoinski et al [2002] found no difference in male urinary corticoid levels when comparing all-male and mixed-sex groups and Kuhar et al [2006] found no difference in personality characteristics between males in bachelor groups and males in mixed-sex groups. On average, males in bachelor groups may spend less time feeding but more time examining objects and exhibiting display behavior than males in mixed-sex groups .…”

Section: Why Are Special Facility Design Recommendations Needed For Hmentioning

confidence: 97%

Facility design for Bachelor Gorilla groups

Coe¹,

Scott

Lukas

2009

Zoo Biology

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This paper emerged from discussions following the Bachelor Gorilla 2000 Workshop Facility Design sessions. Although many ape facility design features are common to all gorillas, the purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of special needs of bachelor gorillas. For example, managing escalating aggression between maturing or silverback males may require a high degree of caregiver intervention and thus easy access to gorillas both on- and off-exhibit is beneficial. Facility design features that reduce contact aggression, increase affiliation, provide visual barriers or escape routes, and allow safe outlets for species-typical behavior are essential to the successful management of bachelor gorilla groups in zoos. Such provisions permit caregivers the ability to constantly monitor and modify the zoo environment to meet rapidly changing husbandry needs. Creatively designed habitats and continuing research on bachelor group dynamics will undoubtedly allow zoo managers to maintain all gorilla groups in an environmental and social context that enhances well-being over the long term.

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“…After reaching a plateau in adulthood, our study shows a decline in aging orangutans, a pattern found in other primates including great apes. For example a study on baboons and geladas found an age-related decline in fecal testosterone levels starting at the age of 10-11 years [5], while a study carried out with captive gorillas found a decrease in urinary testosterone levels in animals older than 20 years [62]. In contrast, the peak androgen levels in orangutans were reached around the age of 30.…”

Section: Species Differences In Androgen Levelsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Species-specific patterns in fecal glucocorticoid and androgen levels in zoo-living orangutans (Pongo spp.)

Weingrill¹,

Willems²,

Zimmermann³

et al. 2011

General and Comparative Endocrinology

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In contrast to most primate species, including the other great apes, orangutans maintain a fission-fusion social system in the wild without being part of a stable community. In zoos, however, they are kept in permanent groups, usually consisting of one adult male and several females. In zoo orangutans, we predict higher levels of glucocorticoids and androgens in the Bornean species compared to its congener from Sumatra, due to the much more solitary lifestyle of Bornean orangutans and the apparent higher frequency of male aggression directed towards females in this species in the wild. To compare hormone levels of the two orangutan species, we validated a fecal glucocorticoid and a fecal androgen assay. Subsequently, fecal samples from a total of 73 female and 38 male orangutans housed in 29 European zoos were analyzed to investigate the effect of species, social group size, age and (for female glucocorticoid levels) reproductive state and the presence of adult males on fecal hormone metabolite concentrations. The results of linear mixed effect models indicate that both male and female Bornean orangutans show a steeper increase in glucocorticoid levels with increasing group size than Sumatran orangutans. We therefore conclude that Sumatran zoo orangutans are better able to adjust to social housing conditions than their Bornean congeners. In addition, our analyses reveal higher glucocorticoid levels in lactating females of both species compared to non-lactating and juvenile females. Concerning androgen levels in males, our analyses revealed significantly higher concentrations in Bornean than Sumatran orangutans. These differences in both glucocorticoid and androgen output between the two species of orangutan are presumably linked to ecological and behavioral differences and could possibly be attributed to phenotypic plasticity. However, given that we found interspecific differences in hormone excretion in captivity, where both species live under very similar conditions, we conclude that this variation has a genetic basis. a b s t r a c tIn contrast to most primate species, including the other great apes, orangutans maintain a fission-fusion social system in the wild without being part of a stable community. In zoos, however, they are kept in permanent groups, usually consisting of one adult male and several females. In zoo orangutans, we predict higher levels of glucocorticoids and androgens in the Bornean species compared to its congener from Sumatra, due to the much more solitary lifestyle of Bornean orangutans and the apparent higher frequency of male aggression directed towards females in this species in the wild. To compare hormone levels of the two orangutan species, we validated a fecal glucocorticoid and a fecal androgen assay. Subsequently, fecal samples from a total of 73 female and 38 male orangutans housed in 29 European zoos were analyzed to investigate the effect of species, social group size, age and (for female glucocorticoid levels) reproductive state and the presence of adult males on f...

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Urinary androgen and corticoid levels in captive, male Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla): Age‐ and social group‐related differences

Cited by 46 publications

References 33 publications

The Effect of Fission–Fusion Zoo Housing on Hormonal and Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)

The Effect of Fission–Fusion Zoo Housing on Hormonal and Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)

Facility design for Bachelor Gorilla groups

Species-specific patterns in fecal glucocorticoid and androgen levels in zoo-living orangutans (Pongo spp.)

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