Urinary Biomarkers for Early Diagnosis of Lung Cancer

Abstract

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Its early detection has the potential to significantly impact the burden of the disease. The screening and diagnostic techniques in current use suffer from limited specificity. The need therefore arises for a reliable biomarker to identify the disease earlier, which can be integrated into a test. This test would also allow for the recurrence risk after surgery to be stratified. In this context, urine could represent a non-invasive alternative matrix, with the urinary metabolomic profile offering a potential source for the discovery of diagnostic biomarkers. This paper aims to examine the current state of research and the potential for translation into clinical practice.

Urine biomarkers in cancer detection: A systematic review of preanalytical parameters and applied methods

“…Two studies elucidated the effect of oxidative stress on lung cancer pathogenesis. 169,170 A literature review about urinary biomarkers for early diagnosis of lung cancer, including publications from 2010 to 2020, was performed by Gasparri et al 171 They showed that: (a) there are no clinically available validated urinary biomarkers, (b) many promising research projects have been performed over the past decade and (c) there is a lack of a standard approach which limits the scientific robustness. 171…”

Urinary Biomarkers and Point-of-Care Urinalysis Devices for Early Diagnosis and Management of Disease: A Review

“…Lung cancer (LC) has a high mortality rate globally, and in most cases, diagnosis is often made at a late stage when the process of metastization has already begun [ 57 ]. To avoid such a scenario, the use of biomarkers may be useful.…”

3D Plasmonic Multilayered Gold Nanoarchitecture for Multiple Cancer Diagnosis Using SERS and Machine Learning-Assisted Liquid-Phase Human Urine Sensing

“…Those metabolite candidates are known to be released in a higher or lower level in cancer urine, compared to that of normal, according to various studies. 4,[31][32][33][34][35][36] For example, tryptophan (557, 957, and 1549 cm − 1 ), serine (557 cm − 1 ), cysteine (557 cm − 1 ), kynurenine (957 and 1043 cm − 1 ), hypoxanthine (957 cm − 1 ), choline (957cm − 1 ), proline (1043 and 2090 cm − 1 ), xylose (1800 cm − 1 ), trans-aconitic acid (1800 and 2090 cm − 1 ), and cis-aconitic acid (1823 cm − 1 ) are reported to be higher, while creatinine (978 and 2119 cm − 1 ) and hippuric acid (978 cm − 1 ) are lower in pancreatic cancer, as reported in medical studies. 4,31,37,38 In the case of prostate cancer, proline (488 and 1043 cm − 1 ), guanine (488 and 1337 cm − 1 ), adenine (725 cm − 1 ), hypoxanthine (725 and 1337 cm − 1 ), 4-pyridoxic acid (725 cm − 1 ), xanthine (887 cm − 1 ), kynurenine (1043 cm − 1 ), threonine (2119 cm − 1 ), and creatinine (2119 cm − 1 ) are expected to be released higher, while tryptophan (557 and 1549 cm − 1 ), and alanine (1549 cm − 1 ) are reported to be lower.…”

“…4,32,39,40 In lung cancer, phenylalanine (1002 cm − 1 ), phenylacetamide (1002 cm − 1 ), dimethylamine (1002 cm − 1 ), alanine (1666 cm − 1 ), threonine (2119 cm − 1 ), and creatinine (2119 cm − 1 ) are found to be higher, whereas, tryptophan (557 cm − 1 ) and hippuric acid (978 cm − 1 ) are lower. 4,33,34,41 For colorectal cancer, xanthine (887 cm − 1 ), kynurenine (957 and 1250 cm − 1 ), tryptophan (1250 cm − 1 ), fucose (1250 cm − 1 ), taurine (1250 cm − 1 ), proline (2090 cm − 1 ), and transaconitic acid (2090 cm − 1 ) are reported to be higher, while sn-glycerol 3-phosphate (826 cm − 1 ), threonine (2119 cm − 1 ), and creatinine (2119 cm − 1 ) are released lower, as reported elsewhere. 4,5,35,36,42 .…”

“…The selected Raman shift positions were related to different metabolites releasing patterns for each cancer type compared to normal and can be considered for metabolite biomarker candidates for cancer discrimination from the normal group. To identify these related metabolites, we collected candidates that are reported to be released in human urine from literatures 4,[31][32][33][34][35][36] and measured their SERS signals using the 3D AuNL/AuNP/AuS well plate. Consequently, SERS spectra were obtained for 37 metabolite candidates as shown in Fig.…”