Urine and Saliva: Relevant Specimens for Malaria Diagnosis?

Abstract

Blood remains the specimen of preference for malaria diagnosis, whether it is for microscopic, nucleic acid-based or biomarker detection of Plasmodium present in a patient. However, concerning the disadvantages of blood drawing, specimens that can be non-invasively collected under non-hygienic settings would come in handy for malaria diagnosis in endemic areas with limited resources. Although the current approaches using saliva or urine might not be as sensitive and specific as using blood, the potential of these two specimens should not be underestimated and efforts in developing diagnostic methods for Plasmodium detection specifically in these two specimens should continue without giving up. This review not only compiles and summarizes the sensitivity and specificity achieved by various detection approaches when using these samples for malaria diagnosis, it also intends to enhance the possibility of using saliva and urine for diagnostic purposes by describing how Plasmodium nucleic acid and antigens may likely be present in these samples. This review may hopefully encourage and motivate researchers in developing saliva- and urine-based diagnostic methods for Plasmodium detection to facilitate the control and eradication of malaria. In summary, the presence of Plasmodium DNA and antigens in urine and saliva makes these two specimens relevant and useful for malaria diagnosis.

Urinalysis Results And Resistance To Hospital Treatment With Injectable Antimalarials In Angola

“…In the present study, we found (Table 2) that the light yellow color of urine, low or normal urine density, the presence of bacteria, the presence of few leukocytes and few lymphocytes in the urine can signal an efficient response to treatment with injectable antimalarials, because these factors appeared to be protective of hospital resistance to antimalarial treatment (P<0.05), but showed the cloudy appearance of urine, high pH, presence of few crystals and presence of other microorganisms in the urine may be signs of resistance to hospital treatment injectable with antimalarial (P>0.05). These data reinforce what was said by Kalantari and collaborators (2015) and Chai & Chua (2022), that urine, as it is an ultrafiltrate of the blood, if it contains the majority of specific plasma or serum proteins and low molecular weight, can be a suitable sample for investigating the pathological process not only of renal diseases, but also of systemic or infectious diseases [21,22].…”

Urinalysis Results and Resistance to Hospital Treatment with Injectable Antimalarials in Angola

“…In the present study, we found (Table 2) that the light yellow color of urine, low or normal urine density, the presence of bacteria, the presence of few leukocytes and few lymphocytes in the urine can signal an efficient response to treatment with injectable antimalarials, because these factors appeared to be protective of hospital resistance to antimalarial treatment (P<0.05), but showed the cloudy appearance of urine, high pH, presence of few crystals and presence of other microorganisms in the urine may be signs of resistance to hospital treatment injectable with antimalarial (P>0.05). These data reinforce what was said by Kalantari and collaborators (2015) and Chai & Chua (2022), that urine, as it is an ultrafiltrate of the blood, if it contains the majority of specific plasma or serum proteins and low molecular weight, can be a suitable sample for investigating the pathological process not only of renal diseases, but also of systemic or infectious diseases [21,22].…”

Unveiling the Complex World of Extracellular Vesicles: Novel Characterization Techniques and Manufacturing Considerations

“…Some biomarkers in biofluid samples only exist at very dilute protein content levels (e.g., those in urine or saliva). 108 Therefore, digital-based approaches have been introduced to help the quantitative analytical analysis, such as in the limit of detection. Yang et al 100 developed a droplet-based optofluidic platform to quantify specific individual EV subpopulations, and in a high throughput manner.…”