Vaccine-Induced Antibody Responses as Parameters of the Influence of Endogenous and Environmental Factors

Abstract

In laboratory animals, an adequate way to assess effects of environmental exposures on the immune system is to study effects on antigen-specific immune responses, such as after sensitization to T-cell-dependent antigens. This probably also applies to testing effects in the human population. It has thus been suggested that antibody responses to vaccination might be useful in this context. Vaccination responses may be influenced by a variety of factors other than environmental ones. One factor is the vaccine itself; a second is the vaccination procedure used. In addition, the intrinsic capacity of the recipient to respond to a vaccine, which is determined by sex, genetic factors, and age, is important. Psychological stress, nutrition, and (infectious) diseases are also likely to have an impact. We reviewed the literature on vaccine response. With regard to exogenous factors, there is good evidence that smoking, diet, psychological stress, and certain infectious diseases affect vaccination titers, although it is difficult to determine to what extent. Genetic factors render certain individuals nonresponsive to vaccination. In general, in epidemiologic studies of adverse effects of exposure to agents in the environment in which vaccination titers are used, these additional factors need to be taken into consideration. Provided that these factors are corrected for, a study that shows an association of exposure to a given agent with diminished vaccination responses may indicate suboptimal function of the immune system and clinically relevant diminished immune response. It is quite unlikely that environmental exposures that affect responses to vaccination may in fact abrogate protection to the specific pathogen for which vaccination was performed. Only in those cases where individuals have a poor response to the vaccine may exogenous factors perhaps have a clinically significant influence on resistance to the specific pathogen. An exposure-associated inhibition of a vaccination response may, however, signify a decreased host resistance to pathogens against which no vaccination had been performed.

What’s So Special about the Developing Immune System?

“…Although considered biologically relevant, TRECs and cytokine measurements were deemed to need further evaluation and validation prior to their use, whereas immunophenotyping and measurement of serum immunoglobulin levels were not considered to be very sensitive. In contrast, the authors suggest that measurement of the immune response to vaccines (van Loveren et al 2001), such as hepatitis B (Kiecolt-Glaser et al 2002) or diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP; Swartz et al 2003), may provide a good indicator for DIT. Additional studies, however, are needed to evaluate the utility and sensitivity of such vaccines for assessing DIT.…”

Landscape Analysis of Interactions between Nutrition and Vaccine Responses in Children

“…However, over the years, studies have produced conflicting evidence. The nutritional status of a child influences its immune responses in varied and complex ways that are far from fully understood (3,4). The specific effects on vaccine efficacy have not been extensively reviewed and there is a need to gather all the available data together to inform future policy making.…”

Seasonal influenza vaccination and technologies

“…Although the amount of antigen perstrain is consistent in commercially available IIV and LAIV vaccines, individuals immune responses may vary depending on the strain of influenza virus, environmental factors (eg, stress, nutrition, infection), or genetics . For example, certain SNPs are associated with increased reactogenicity (‘adverse responders', defined as subjects who developed a temperature ≥ 38.3 °C after vaccination) to IIV …”