Validation of Bicycle Level of Traffic Stress and Perceived Safety for Children

Abstract

The level of traffic stress (LTS) methodology was developed to measure, track, and improve the suitability of bicycle networks. Thanks to the simplicity of its data needs and interpretation, LTS has been implemented by several states, regions, cities, non-profits, and researchers. However, relatively few validations of the methodology exist. There is a specific gap in relation to safety perceptions for children, an important group since it serves as the critical population for LTS 1. This study validates LTS using a survey of parents in Denver, Colorado, in which they are asked about perceived safety and biking allowance relative to roadway design characteristics. After the LTS score and biking allowance rates for 612 roadway scenarios are determined, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine the suitability of LTS for children. Findings suggest that while LTS 1 and LTS 4 align well with stated preferences, parents told that their children would be able to tolerate some roadway conditions—when allowing for adult supervision—that are currently considered LTS 2 or even LTS 3. These scenarios are primarily on low-volume roadways that have bike lanes. By further refining LTS, it is hoped to ensure that all populations have access to safe and comfortable bicycle facilities.

A systematic review of empirical and simulation studies evaluating the health impact of transportation interventions

“…Empirical studies included in the review were published between 2005 and 2017 ( Table 3 ). These studies were based in: North America, including the United States (n = 11) ( Boarnet et al, 2005 ; Evenson et al, 2005 ; Burbidge and Goulias, 2009 ; Parker et al, 2011 ; Chen et al, 2012 ; Parker et al, 2013 ; Dill et al, 2014 ; Brown et al, 2016 ; Cook et al, 2016 ; Ferenchak and Marshall, 2016 ; Brown et al, 2016b ) and Canada (n = 1) ( Bhatia et al, 2016 ); Europe, specifically, the United Kingdom (n = 9) ( Goodman et al, 2013 ; Goodman et al 2013b ; Goodman et al 2014 ; Heinen et al, 2015 ; Panter and Ogilvie, 2015 ; Heinen and Ogilvie, 2016 ; Panter et al, 2016 ; Panter and Ogilvie, 2017 ; Song et al, 2017 ) and Denmark (n = 1) ( Jensen, 2008 ); and Australia (n = 4) ( Greaves et al, 2015 ; Langdon, 2015 ; Rissel et al, 2015 ; Heesch et al, 2016 ). Only three studies were based in LMIC, specifically, Colombia, Mexico and Brazil ( Cerdá et al, 2012 ; Pazin et al, 2016 ; Chang et al, 2017 ).…”

“… Population: Adults living within 3.2 km of the new trail segment. Adults (366) 43% ≥50 yrs 65 Physical activity (n = 5) Active transit duration (n = 3) No 12 Ferenchak and Marshall (2016) Chicago, USA 2008-10 SC: cycling infrastructure; bike lanes & sharrows (both unprotected) 259 block groups that had only sharrows (shared lane markings) installed (overall 54 km of sharrows), and 292 block groups that overall had 168 km of bike lanes installed. Intervention group: Bike lane ; census block groups that had bike lanes or trails installed between 2000 and 2010.…”

“…Four studies employed a random sampling approach to recruit participants, including three multi-component ( Cerdá et al, 2012 ; Pazin et al, 2016 ; Chang et al, 2017 ) and one single component intervention study ( Evenson et al, 2005 ). A further eleven studies attempted to sample the entire study area, including nine single component ( Chen et al, 2012 ; Goodman et al 2013b , 2014 ; Dill et al, 2014 ; Panter and Ogilvie 2015 , 2017 ; Bhatia et al, 2016 ; Ferenchak and Marshall, 2016 ; Song et al, 2017 ) and two multi-component intervention studies ( Goodman et al, 2013 ; Brown et al, 2016 ).…”

“…Most studies however, considered intervention impacts among people living in a fixed area of influence. These areas of influence were most commonly defined as buffers centred on the focal point of an intervention ( Evenson et al, 2005 ; Burbidge and Goulias, 2009 ; Dill et al, 2014 ; Panter and Ogilvie, 2015 ; Rissel et al, 2015 ; Brown et al, 2016b ; Chang et al, 2017 ), although some studies used predefined geographies such as towns ( Goodman et al, 2013 ), block groups ( Langdon, 2015 ; Ferenchak and Marshall, 2016 ) and neighborhoods ( Cerdá et al, 2012 ) in and/or surrounding intervention sites. Only 9 studies used a distance-based metric to assess health impacts among people living different distances from an intervention ( Goodman et al 2013b , 2014 ; Heinen et al, 2015 ; Brown et al, 2016 ; Heinen and Ogilvie, 2016 ; Panter et al, 2016 ; Pazin et al, 2016 ; Panter and Ogilvie, 2017 ; Song et al, 2017 ).…”

“…2 B) predominantly reported on injury outcomes (n = 37) ( Jensen, 2008 ; Chen et al, 2012 ; Bhatia et al, 2016 ; Ferenchak and Marshall, 2016 ), active travel duration outcomes (n = 30) ( Evenson et al, 2005 ; Burbidge and Goulias, 2009 ; Dill et al, 2014 ; Goodman et al, 2014 ; Greaves et al, 2015 ; Panter and Ogilvie 2015 , 2017 ; Cook et al, 2016 ; Song et al, 2017 ) and active trip outcomes (n = 16) ( Burbidge and Goulias, 2009 ; Parker et al 2011 , 2013 ; Dill et al, 2014 ; Greaves et al, 2015 ; Rissel et al, 2015 ; Ferenchak and Marshall, 2016 ; Heesch et al, 2016 ). Only 6 out of 37 injury outcomes showed statistically significant associations with new bicycle lanes ( Jensen, 2008 ; Bhatia et al, 2016 ; Ferenchak and Marshall, 2016 ), and of these, the majority (n = 4, all from the same study) were in the unexpected direction (i.e., the installation of bicycle lanes was positively associated with injuries) ( Jensen, 2008 ). The highest number of statistically significant outcomes were observed for active travel duration (i.e., 15 of 30 outcomes) ( Evenson et al, 2005 ; Dill et al, 2014 ; Goodman et al, 2014 ; Cook et al, 2016 ; Panter and Ogilvie, 2017 ; Song et al, 2017 ).…”