Validation of the Scale of Racial Socialization for African American Adolescents: Steps toward Multidimensionality

Abstract

Little empirical work has been initiated that broadens the definition of racial socialization and its measurement to integrate it with current theoretical discussion of racial identity developmentand AfricanAmerican cultural characteristics and strengths. This study reports the development and validation of the Scale of Racial SocializationforAdolescents (SORS-A). A principal components analysis was conducted following administration of the SORS-A and measures of demographics, family communication about racism, and perception of skin color to 200 African American urban teenagers. Four factors were found to be very meaningful and moderately reliable. The racial socialization factors include Spiritual and Religious Coping, Extended Family Caring, Cultural Pride Reinforcement, and Racism Awareness Teaching. A second-order factor analysis to identify underlying themes was also conducted. Themes of protective and proactive racial socialization were found to be supportive of a theoreticalframework for racial socialization that is multidimensional and inclusive of both socially oppressive and culturally empowering experiences.

Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity as Risk or Protective Factors for Violent Behaviors in African American Young Adults

“…Because racial socialization is a vital process within most African American families (Bowman & Howard, 1985;Stevenson, 1994), the inclusion of family members in violence preventive interventions is critical to the success of conveying consistent messages about coping with race relations from the family's perspective. Involving family members directly or indirectly is an important strategy for future violence prevention interventions with African American youth.…”

“…These findings suggest that identifying with their ethnic group may provide African American youth with protections against engaging in violent behaviors. These studies, however, included relatively small African American samples, focused on males, examined attitudes and not behavior, considered only main effects, or included unidimensional measures of racial identity.A number of researchers have argued that the concept of racial identity is a multidimensional construct (Gonzales & Cauce, 1995;Phinney, 1992;Romero & Roberts, 1998;Rotheram-Borus, Lightfoot, Moraes, Dopkins, & LaCour, 1998;Sanders-Thompson, 1994;Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998;Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, & Seay, 1999;Stevenson, 1994). This reconceptualization suggests that different racial identity attitudes may relate to violent behavior in different ways.…”

“…A number of researchers have argued that the concept of racial identity is a multidimensional construct (Gonzales & Cauce, 1995;Phinney, 1992;Romero & Roberts, 1998;Rotheram-Borus, Lightfoot, Moraes, Dopkins, & LaCour, 1998;Sanders-Thompson, 1994;Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chavous, 1998;Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, & Seay, 1999;Stevenson, 1994). This reconceptualization suggests that different racial identity attitudes may relate to violent behavior in different ways.…”

The Effect of Racial Socialization on Urban African American Use of Child Mental Health Services

“…Through spiritual and religious coping (Stevenson, 1994), African American parents teach children that a belief in God, dependence on religion, and family practice of religion through organized religious institutions are resources vital to their well-being and a source of support available throughout their lives. Messages reflect that "depending on religion and God can make a person better able to make good life decisions" and "a belief in God can help a person cope through life struggles" (Stevenson, 1994, p. 455).…”

“…A second institution that children are made aware of as part of racial socialization parenting practices is an extended network of blood related and non-blood related kin, which has traditionally been utilized by African Americans as a means of providing various material and social support (Stevenson, 1994;Jarret, 1996). This practice, referred to as extended family caring (Stevenson, 1994) in the literature, encourages children to utilize this extended family as a means of making important decisions, learning valuable knowledge, gaining support, and developing a racial identity.…”