Value-directed retrieval: The effects of divided attention at encoding and retrieval on memory selectivity and retrieval dynamics.

Abstract

Value-directed remembering refers to the tendency to best remember important information at the expense of less valuable information, and this ability may draw on strategic attentional processes. In six experiments, we investigated the role of attention in value-directed remembering by examining memory for important information under conditions of divided attention during encoding and retrieval. We presented participants with lists of words of varying objective or subjective value and compared participants completing the study phase under full or divided attention, in addition to participants completing the testing phase under full or divided attention. Results revealed that certain forms of selectivity were impaired when attention was divided during encoding but not when attention was divided during retrieval. Participants initiated recall (i.e., probability of first recall [PFR]) with high-value words as well as with words they subjectively deemed important; these value-mediated PFR retrieval dynamics resisted influence from reduced attentional resources during encoding and retrieval. Thus, while value-directed remembering involves both strategic encoding and retrieval operations, attentional resources during encoding appear crucial for subsequent recollection of valuable and important information; however, attentional resources during retrieval may be less influential in strategic selective memory.

The effect of time constraints on value-directed long-term memory in younger and older adults.

“…The results from Experiment 1 support previous findings that selectivity is preserved with age (Castel et al, 2012, 2013; Middlebrooks, McGillivray, et al, 2016) and present new evidence for this ability remaining intact even under time pressures during encoding. However, prior work indicates that encoding and retrieval differentially contribute to memory selectivity (Murphy et al, 2023). In addition, the retrieval process may be more attentionally demanding than encoding (Craik et al, 1996; Johnston et al, 1972) and may affect younger and older adults’ selective recall of the most valuable information.…”

“…Retrieval of valuable information is another process that may be affected by limited time and may yield age-related differences in performance. In typical VDR studies without time constraints, younger and older adults tend to initiate recall with high-value items rather than low-value items (Murphy & Castel, 2022b; see also Murphy et al, 2023; Stefanidi et al, 2018), likely contributing to their overall selective recall by value. However, if given only a limited amount of time at retrieval, organizing recall for the high-value items first becomes even more important because all remembered words may not be outputted in time.…”

“…From a mechanistic perspective, time constraints at encoding may not affect the ability to automatically process the most valuable information due to its subconscious and effortless nature; however, it is likely that time constraints would impact the strategic processing of value. For example, prior work has found that performing a divided attention task while engaging in value-directed encoding eliminated the effect of value on recognition memory (Elliott & Brewer, 2019; see also Murphy & Castel, 2022b; Murphy et al, 2023). This may be because implementing desired strategies requires time and effort (Elliott & Brewer, 2019; Stoff & Eagle, 1971).…”

Alpha and theta oscillations on a visual strategic processing task in age-related hearing loss

“…For instance, we strategically attend to warning signs related to hazardous conditions when driving on a freeway in a snowstorm compared to general information signs. In laboratory settings, value-directed strategic processing has been typically examined using visual word-list learning tasks ( Castel, 2007 ; Castel et al, 2009 ; Murphy et al, 2024 ). In these tasks, words are paired with different point values ranging from low- to high-, such as 1–16 (1: low-value; 16: high-value), and participants are asked to recall as many words as they can with the goal of scoring maximum points.…”