Values and Behavior in Economic Development

Entrepreneurial Action and the Role of Uncertainty in the Theory of the Entrepreneur

“…This elimination of perceptual differences forces Schumpeter to speculate reluctantly about motivational differences in an attempt to explain why some individuals and not others engage in entrepreneurial action (1934: 90). Schumpeter's (1934) behavioral bent attracted psychologists, such as McClelland (1961), Hagen (1962), and Kunkel (1965), who exchanged the economic theorists' descriptive orientation for a more prescriptive theoretical viewpoint. Whereas economic theories of the entrepreneur focused on explaining what must occur (e.g., uncertainty bearing) for the economy to function, psychological theories sought to explain why entrepreneurs are more willing than their counterparts to bear this uncertainty.…”

Theory and Methodology of World Development

“…Pessimistic conclusions regarding the time necessary for the preparation of the right psychological conditions for economic development are based, essentially, on an incorrect conception of man and on the disregard of principles of behavior formation and maintenance derived from experimental psychology. 157 Nevertheless, in his contribution to the collection of papers edited by Nash and Chin that exemplifies this third mode approach, Kunkel's criticism is based largely on psychological principles and is limited essentially to methodological criticism of the third mode's empirical assertions. 158 So is Eisenstadt's criticism in his review of McClelland's book.…”

“…Since usually only a few aspects of the societal environment can be altered, present efforts to create behavioral prerequisites must begin on a small scale. 163 This suggests that, to evaluate the theoretical adequacy of the third mode approach, we must bring still other criteria to bear, such as the historicity and holistic structuralism by which we already examined the first two approaches.…”

The Impact of Public Policy on Entrepreneurship: A Critical Investigation of the Protestant Ethic on a Divided Island Jurisdiction

“…Government policy, in turn, reflects attitude. Attitude, according to Kunkel (1965), may be defined as persistent, general orientation, a state of readiness, exerting a directive or dynamic influence.…”