“…As suggested by prior literature, these four domains of childhood factors may influence cognitive aging through multiple pathways. For example, childhood SES (Kaplan et al, 2001;Marden et al, 2017), neighborhood social environment (Wu et al, 2015), social relationships (Chan et al, 2019;Crosnoe, 2000) and health conditions (Kobayashi et al, 2017;Nguyen et al, 2008;Zhang et al, 2010) have profound effects on early-life brain development, which contribute to the initial cognitive reserve and vulnerability to brain pathologies. The four childhood circumstances may also determine the completion of formal education, social status, and health or health behaviors in adulthood (Borenstein and Mortimer, 2016a;Chetty et al, 2016;Fletcher et al, 2020;Glewwe and Miguel, 2007;Luo and Waite, 2005), which in turn shape varying patterns of cognitive aging.…”