Venous drainage of the spine and spinal cord: A comprehensive review of its history, embryology, anatomy, physiology, and pathology

Abstract

Venous drainage of the spine and spinal cord is accomplished through a complex network of venous structures compartmentalized to intrinsic, extrinsic, and extradural systems. As the literature on this topic is scarce, the following review was performed to summarize the available literature into a single coherent format. The medical literature on the spinal venous system was reviewed using online sources as well as historical documents that were not available online in regard to history, embryology, anatomy, and physiology with a particular emphasis on the pathology affecting this system. The spinal venous system is complex and variable. Proper understanding of all aspects is critical for the management of the pathology that results from its failure.

The microanatomy of spinal cord injury: A review

“…However, a different study showed that reperfusion of the cord after a compressive insult is not accompanied by the recovery of evoked potentials (Hitchon et al, ). Furthermore, the spinal venous system appears to have an impact on spinal cord perfusion and it is as well as shown in compression experiments (Jellinger, ; Griessenauer et al, ).…”

Involvement of spinal glutamate transporter-1 in the development of mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia associated with type 2 diabetes

“…Peripheral neuropathy in diabetes is the most common complication of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes1,2 and can affect peripheral sensory neurons in a large percent of adult diabetic patients,2 who may experience excessive sensitivity to nociceptive stimuli or perceive normal stimuli as painful stimuli 3–5. This often results in severely reduced quality-of-life measures 6…”

The early history of our understanding of the functions of the spinal cord

“…Through clinical correlations between both symptoms and lesions of the spine, along with early manipulative investigations, historical researchers were able to identify the spinal cord as an important conduit for signals to and from the brain. Contemporary researchers [2,[11][12][13][14][15][16][17] have used investigative techniques that have gone beyond surgical manipulation and stimulation to visualize the various components of the central Fig. 1 and cover figure Collage demonstrating physicians who have studied the spinal cord over human history.…”