Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Transmission: A Comparison of Incriminated Vectors

Abstract

Vesicular stomatitis (VS) is a viral disease of veterinary importance, enzootic in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas. In the U.S., VS produces devastating economic losses, particularly in the southwestern states where the outbreaks display an occurrence pattern of 10-year intervals. To date, the mechanisms of the geographic spread and maintenance cycles during epizootics remain unclear. This is due, in part, to the fact that VS epidemiology has a complex of variables to consider, including a broad range of vertebrate hosts, multiple routes of transmission, and an extensive diversity of suspected vector species acting as both mechanical and biological vectors. Infection and viral progression within vector species are highly influenced by virus serotype, as well as environmental factors, including temperature and seasonality; however, the mechanisms of viral transmission, including non-conventional pathways, are yet to be fully studied. Here, we review VS epidemiology and transmission mechanisms, with comparisons of transmission evidence for the four most incriminated hematophagous dipteran taxa: Aedes mosquitoes, Lutzomyia sand flies, Simulium black flies, and Culicoides biting midges.

To B or Not to B: Mechanisms of Protection Conferred by rVSV-EBOV-GP and the Roles of Innate and Adaptive Immunity

“…rVSV-EBOV-GP is a live, recombinant vaccine constructed from the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) vector platform [ 36 ]. Although capable of infecting other animals including horses, cattle and swine, VSV rarely infects humans, who are largely asymptomatic or exhibit only mild cases of disease following infection [ 44 , 45 ]. The use of this vector avoids potential issues surrounding pre-existing immunity encountered with some of the other vaccine vectors [ 44 , 45 ].…”

“…Although capable of infecting other animals including horses, cattle and swine, VSV rarely infects humans, who are largely asymptomatic or exhibit only mild cases of disease following infection [ 44 , 45 ]. The use of this vector avoids potential issues surrounding pre-existing immunity encountered with some of the other vaccine vectors [ 44 , 45 ]. The attenuation of VSV is achieved by replacing the native VSV glycoprotein (G) with the glycoprotein of a different virus [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ].…”

Venereal Transmission of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus by Culicoides sonorensis Midges

“…The epizootiology of VS is complex and comprises a wide variety of variables from a broad vertebrate host range, with variation in clinical outcome due to host species and site of initial infection, to the rapid transmission within animal herds by direct contact and fomites [1,5]. Furthermore, there is a diversity of suspected and potential transmission vector species acting as both mechanical and biological vectors throughout temperate and tropical ecosystems [6]. During VSV outbreaks in the U.S., Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and Simulium black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) have important roles in the initial introduction of VSV into animal herds and contribute to outbreak spread in the absence of animal movement [1][2][3]7].…”

“…Transmission of VSV via Culicoides female bites is dependent upon available viremic hosts or infected hosts exhibiting skin-associated vesicular lesions containing large amounts of virus [16]. Blood feeding midges may acquire virus from blood [6], vesicular lesions, or from feeding on intact skin contaminated by vesicular fluid or virus-laden saliva [17,18]. However, the resulting pantropic systemic infection of C. sonorensis midges following oral ingestion of VSV [10], suggests that the interrelationships between the virus and vector may not be restricted to a bloodmeal-midgut-salivary gland-bloodmeal transmission route [6].…”

A critical role for MSR1 in vesicular stomatitis virus infection of the central nervous system

“…Although VSV infection in humans is rare and very mild, it is common in livestock (e.g. cattle, horses and swine) and may produce significant economic losses, particularly in the southwestern states of the Unites States (19). Because of its broad cell tropism, easily genetic engineering and lack of preexisting human immunity against it, VSV is widely used as a model virus for fundamental research and vaccine development (20,21).…”