“…Previous studies have shown that signs of disorder are correlated with concentrated disadvantage (Gau and Pratt, 2010;Sampson and Raudenbush, 2004;Wilcox et al, 2004). Measures of neighborhood disadvantage (e.g., poverty, unemployment, family income, literacy, welfare) and neighborhood instability (e.g., residential mobility and divorciality) have been associated to spatial variations of homicide (Akins, Rumbaut, and Stansfield, 2009;Barata et al, 1998;Berezin et al, 2017;Boessen and Hipp, 2015;Ferrandino, 2018;Hannon, 2005;Kubrin and Weitzer, 2003;Larsen et al, 2017;Mancik, Parker, and Williams, 2018;Mares, 2010;Nieuwbeerta et al, 2008;Ousey, 2006;Parker and McCall, 1999;Pereira, Mota, and Andresen, 2017;Santos, Barcellos, and Sacarvalho, 2006;Strom and MacDonald, 2016;Suresh and Vito, 2009;Vilalta, Castillo, and Torres, 2016;Vilalta and Fondevila, 2019;Vilalta and Muggah, 2014).…”