Virtual paleontology: computer-aided analysis of fossil form and function

Abstract

‘Virtual paleontology’ entails the use of computational methods to assist in the three-dimensional (3-D) visualization and analysis of fossils, and has emerged as a powerful approach for research on the history of life. Three-dimensional imaging techniques allow poorly understood or previously unknown anatomies of fossil plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates, as well as microfossils and trace fossils, to be described in much greater detail than formerly possible, and are applicable to a wide range of preservation types and specimen sizes (Table 1). These methods include non-destructive high-resolution scanning technologies such as conventional X-ray micro-tomography and synchrotron-based X-ray tomography. In addition, form and function can be rigorously investigated through quantitative analysis of computer models, for example finite-element analysis.

Digitizing, modelling and 3D printing of skeletal digital models of Palaeoloxodon tiliensis (Tilos, Dodecanese, Greece)

“…Laser Scanning, Photogrammetry, X-ray, Serial grinding tomography, Micro tomography (micro-CT), Synchrotron CT, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Neutron tomography are some of the techniques used, and all fossil categories (vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, microfossils and trace fossils) can be digitized and analyzed with such techniques taking into account their methodological limitations (Cunningham et al, 2014;Rahman and Smith, 2014). Many of these techniques allow for the virtual dissection, picturing isolation and 3D imaging of specimens, providing raw data for numerous palaeontological analyses (Sutton, 2008).…”

“…Palaeontologists have made use of advances in virtual palaeontology, producing a plethora of different studies (Sutton et al, 2012;Rahman and Smith, 2014). Recent examples of the use of virtual palaeontology techniques in the study of proboscideans investigate a variety of issues ranging from osteology (Fisher et al, 2014a) to ontogeny and taphonomy (Fisher et al, 2014b), and even dentin density changes in annual increments (Cherney et al, 2014;El Adli et al, 2014) with the use of X-ray tomography.…”

A novel application of the white light/fringe projection duo: recovering high precision three-dimensional images from fossils for the digital preservation of morphology

“…A good comparison of these techniques was made by Cunningham et al (2014), Rahman and Smith (2014) and Sutton et al (2014), who discussed a wide variety of 3-D imaging techniques applicable to fossils and their suitability for different materials. When the crucial aim is to recover DNA from fossils, it is vital to use techniques that will cause as less molecular damage as possible, and those based on white light are a practical choice.…”

“…Furthermore, using this technique, the resolution is comparable with more expensive 3-D imaging techniques also used for fossils, as laser scanning (>50 µm), magnetic resonance imaging (>10 µm), neutron tomography (>30 µm). Also, using a distinct lens it can achieve micro-CT resolution (>1 µm) (Rahman and Smith, 2014;Sutton et al, 2014), considering that the current resolution limit for a white light image system is around 0.5 µm because diffraction effects limit the maximum possible resolution (Conroy and Armstrong, 2005).…”

Virtual palaeontology: the effects of mineral composition and texture of fossil shell and hosting rock on the quality of X-ray microtomography (XMT) outcomes using Palaeozoic brachiopods

“…As computed tomographical techniques have spread into various fields of science in recent years, the adoption of these techniques, notably Xray microtomography (XMT) and synchrotron radiation X-ray tomographic microscopy (SRXTM), to the study of fossils has also become increasingly popular, heralding a new era for virtual palaeontology (Sutton, 2008;Cunningham et al, 2014;Rahman and Smith, 2014;Sutton et al, 2014). A unique strength of these imaging techniques lies with its power to produce the complete set of serial sections of fossils in very high resolution while also protecting the integrity of the fossils by not causing any physical damage to them.…”