“…Currently, an increasing number of studies are incorporating user EEG signals. Relevant studies and applications exist in many fields, such as user experience analysis during human–computer interaction ( Lee, 2004 ; Frey et al, 2013 ; Li et al, 2022b ), driver fatigue detection ( Jap et al, 2009 ; Borghini et al, 2014 ; Gao et al, 2019 ), emotion recognition ( Alarcao and Fonseca, 2017 ; Shu et al, 2018 ), etc. Additionally, more studies have used headset-based noninvasive brain–computer interfaces ( Cincotti et al, 2008 ; Cecotti, 2011 ).…”