VOC‐based detection of prostate cancer using an electronic nose and ion mobility spectrometry: A novel urine‐based approach

Abstract

BackgroundMany diseases leave behind specific metabolites which can be detected from breath and urine as volatile organic compounds (VOC). Our group previously described VOC‐based methods for the detection of bladder cancer and urinary tract infections. This study investigated whether prostate cancer can be diagnosed from VOCs in urine headspace.MethodsFor this pilot study, mid‐stream urine samples were collected from 56 patients with histologically confirmed prostate cancer. A control group was formed with 53 healthy male volunteers matched for age who had recently undergone a negative screening by prostate‐specific antigen (PSA) and digital rectal exam. Headspace measurements were performed with the electronic nose Cyranose 320TM. Statistical comparison was performed using principal component analysis, calculating Mahalanobis distance, and linear discriminant analysis. Further measurements were carried out with ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) to compare detection accuracy and to identify potential individual analytes. Bonferroni correction was applied for multiple testing.ResultsThe electronic nose yielded a sensitivity of 77% and specificity of 62%. Mahalanobis distance was 0.964, which is indicative of limited group separation. IMS identified a total of 38 individual analytical peaks, two of which showed significant differences between groups (p < 0.05). To discriminate between tumor and controls, a decision tree with nine steps was generated. This model led to a sensitivity of 98% and specificity of 100%.ConclusionsVOC‐based detection of prostate cancer seems feasible in principle. While the first results with an electronic nose show some limitations, the approach can compete with other urine‐based marker systems. However, it seems less reliable than PSA testing. IMS is more accurate than the electronic nose with promising sensitivity and specificity, which warrants further research. The individual relevant metabolites identified by IMS should further be characterized using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to facilitate potential targeted rapid testing.