Water management systems of two towns in the Eastern Himalaya: case studies of Singtam in Sikkim and Kalimpong in West Bengal states of India

Abstract

This study examines the water supply systems, their sociopolitical dynamics, and the future of water management in two Indian towns in the Eastern Himalaya, Kalimpong in West Bengal and Singtam in Sikkim. The research was centred around issues of demand and supply, water scarcity and stress, equity, water governance, and the sustainable conservation and management of water resources in a climate change context. Methodologically based on surveys, focus group discussions, and key informants' interviews, this study finds that spring sources are drying alarmingly in Singtam, even as demand is increasing dramatically due to a floating population that is more than the number of local inhabitants. The town suffers from the lack of an adequate reservoir facility and the frequent damage of water supply pipes during the monsoon. Kalimpong faces acute water shortages all year round. The political tug of war between the state government agencies and the local government around the management and supply of water, declining water discharge in spring sources, the lack of water infrastructure for repair, maintenance, and supply, and the glaring inequity between the higher, middle, and lower income groups are the immediate issues around water in Kalimpong. The spring sources that supply drinking water to Kalimpong and Singtam need immediate conservation measures to arrest the declining state of discharge. Micro-planning at the local level, reviving drying springs, and the adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation practices on a watershed basis are all important ways forward. The development of water security plans and their strict enforcement through multi-institutional collaboration can contribute to improved water governance and socioecological restoration for sustainable water resources management.

How can Transnational Municipal Networks foster local collaborative governance regimes for environmental management?

“…In 2018, MSW was collected through community bins and transported by municipal trucks on a predetermined schedule signified to households with the ringing of a bell (Sharma et al 2020 ; Interview B and C). These trucks took the waste to a dumping site in Martam, approximately 20 km away from Gangtok center (Fig.…”

Hill Women-led Spring Water Management in Darjeeling Himalayan Region, West Bengal

“…Known for its scenic beauty, snow-clad Himalayas, and tea gardens, Darjeeling is frequented by tourists from all over the country as well as from around the world. Especially during the summers, the place is a preferred destination due to its pleasant weather [5]. Kalimpong is an important town in the Darjeeling Himalaya with a population size of 49,403 (Census 2011) and spread over 23 wards in 3.5 sq km.…”

“…Earlier, Deolo reservoir, fed by these streams, always had about 8 lakh gallons of water. But for the past 15-20 days it has come down to 3.5 lakh gallons to 5 lakh gallons [5].…”

Implementation of National Water Policy by eastern states of India—A review and analysis

“…Saleth (2000) analyzed the water institutional developments in 11 countries including India and demonstrated that the structural shifts exist in the water sector due to the endogenous factors (water shortages, output degradation, and financial unattainable) as well as exogenous factors (macroeconomic instability, democratic transformation, natural disasters, and technical advancement). Many researchers have attempted to propose a national water demand management policy in India to manage demand and improve water use efficiency (Asthana, 2011; Gopakumar, 2010; Meijerink & Huitema, 2010; Singh et al., 2013), interbasin water transfers (Gupta & Zaag, 2008; Sharma et al., 2019), and groundwater policy (Katyaini & Barua, 2016; Shah, 2009). Shen and Reddy (2016) explored the complex problems driving water pricing reform and opined that China and India are on the same water pricing path and course, but China has advanced a little further.…”