Water supply and sanitation services in small towns in rural–urban transition zones: The case of Bushenyi-Ishaka Municipality, Uganda

Abstract

Small towns lag behind cities in drinking water and sanitation access globally. Closing this gap requires developing service models for areas with both urban and rural characteristics. This study assessed Bushenyi-Ishaka, a municipality in Uganda situated at the rural–urban transition, with a focus on service ladder indictors. Data sources included household interviews (n = 500) and water quality samples from sources and storage containers. Households in more urban (as compared to rural) cells were more likely to use improved water sources (including piped water on-premises), make regular payments for water, rely on shared sanitation facilities, and make use of manual sludge emptying services. Most households (72%) used an unlined pit latrine not intended for emptying and reuse. These findings suggest that small town servicing models should prioritize non-sewered sanitation management, including incentives for safe excreta containment and disposal opportunities. This study also highlights a need for integrated services models to expand rural–urban water and sanitation coverage.

Combining Sanitary Inspection and Water Quality Data in Western Uganda: Lessons Learned from a Field Trial of Original and Revised Sanitary Inspection Forms

“…The most frequently identified risks regarding household practices were the use of multiple water sources (100%) and inadequate coverage of the final storage container, i.e., the container from which drinking water is directly accessed by household members (80%) ( Table 2). This is consistent with a previous study in the same area that found households dealt with unreliable, seasonal, or costly water supplies by using multiple sources [22]. There were almost no risks identified in bulk storage containers, i.e., intermediate containers used between collection and final storage, while many potential risks were found for collection and the final storage containers.…”

“…The piped water supply system is managed by the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), which is owned and operated by the national government. This study is the continuation of a previous water and sanitation study conducted in the same area [22], which reported that almost half of the households relied on protected springs (48%) as their main drinking water source, followed by unprotected springs (20%), and piped supply (18%) [22]. About one in five households had their water source located on-plot.…”

“…The study was conducted in Bushenyi-Ishaka municipality of the Bushenyi district in southwestern Uganda (Figure 1). Bushenyi-Ishaka municipality covers 81.2 km 2 , has a hilly topography with an average altitude of 1432 m.a.s.l., and a population of approximately 40,000 inhabitants [21,22]. The piped water supply system is managed by the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), which is owned and operated by the national government.…”

“…In the current study, we revisited a total of 129 households that were surveyed in the previous study. Detailed information on the site and household selection can be found in the previous study [22]. We conducted SIs and collected water samples from household storage containers and the main drinking water sources used at the time of visit (i.e., springs and piped distribution taps).…”

“…The piped distribution system was supplied by one common reservoir, meaning that for each gray area shown in Figure 1, the answers to reservoir-related questions were identical (see piped distribution system questions 1-7 in Table 2). If any household revisited from the Marks et al study [22] no longer used their tap or if the tap did not work, that household was then excluded from this study. The number of taps assessed in each of the gray areas shown in Figure 1 varied from 2 to 18, for a total of 61 taps.…”