Waterfowl: Potential Environmental Reservoirs of the Chytrid Fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

Garmyn, An; Rooij, Pascale Van; Pasmans, Frank; Hellebuyck, Tom; Broeck, Wim Van Den; Haesebrouck, Freddy; Martel, An

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035038

Cited by 100 publications

(80 citation statements)

References 17 publications

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“…The effects of rates of physical contact between frogs on rates of transmission of B. dendrobatidis are not known, but frogs can also become infected by contact with water or substrates, both of which can harbour infectious B. dendrobatidis zoospores [48,49]. In addition, zoospores can be carried and released into the environment by non-amphibian hosts, including nematodes and crayfish [50,51], and non-amphibian reservoirs, including reptiles and waterfowl [52,53]. Increased calling effort could also attract predators [54], which would be detrimental for pathogen transmission.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Condition-dependent reproductive effort in frogs infected by a widespread pathogen

et al. 2015

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To minimize the negative effects of an infection on fitness, hosts can respond adaptively by altering their reproductive effort or by adjusting their timing of reproduction. We studied effects of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on the probability of calling in a stream-breeding rainforest frog (Litoria rheocola). In uninfected frogs, calling probability was relatively constant across seasons and body conditions, but in infected frogs, calling probability differed among seasons (lowest in winter, highest in summer) and was strongly and positively related to body condition. Infected frogs in poor condition were up to 40% less likely to call than uninfected frogs, whereas infected frogs in good condition were up to 30% more likely to call than uninfected frogs. Our results suggest that frogs employed a pre-existing, plastic, life-history strategy in response to infection, which may have complex evolutionary implications. If infected males in good condition reproduce at rates equal to or greater than those of uninfected males, selection on factors affecting disease susceptibility may be minimal. However, because reproductive effort in infected males is positively related to body condition, there may be selection on mechanisms that limit the negative effects of infections on hosts.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Condition-dependent reproductive effort in frogs infected by a widespread pathogen

et al. 2015

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“…The morphology of the chytrid isolate in TGhL agar and broth was examined using inverted, phase contrast, and scanning (22) and transmission electron microscopy (23). Zoospores were collected from growth on TGhL agar plates and fixed for transmission electron microscopy with s-collidine buffer followed by osmium tetroxide (23).…”

Section: B Salamandrivorans Molecular Characterization and Diagnostimentioning

confidence: 99%

Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov. causes lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians

Martel

Sluijs²,

Blooi

et al. 2013

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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550

689

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Significance Chytridiomycosis has resulted in the serious decline and extinction of >200 species of amphibians worldwide and poses the greatest threat to biodiversity of any known disease. This fungal disease is currently known to be caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , hitherto the only species within the entire phylum of the Chytridiomycota known to parasitize vertebrate hosts. We describe the discovery of a second highly divergent, chytrid pathogen, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov., that causes lethal skin infections in salamanders, which has resulted in steep declines in salamander populations in northwestern Europe. Our finding provides another explanation for the phenomenon of amphibian biodiversity loss that is emblematic of the current global biodiversity crisis.

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“…However, this idea appeared to be temporarily abandoned after Rowley et al (17) retracted their initial report of the detection of B. dendrobatidis on nonamphibian hosts (18). Recently, it was reported that B. dendrobatidis can be carried on algae (12), terrestrial reptiles (19), waterfowl (20), and nematodes (21), but there is currently no evidence that these carriers actually supported pathogen growth or transmission, which would be necessary to explain the long-term persistence of B. dendrobatidis in the absence of amphibians. Other studies have grown B. dendrobatidis on boiled snake skin (11,22), sterilized bird feathers (23), and toe scales from waterfowl (20), but none of these studies demonstrated B. dendrobatidis growth on live hosts with functioning immune systems.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Recently, it was reported that B. dendrobatidis can be carried on algae (12), terrestrial reptiles (19), waterfowl (20), and nematodes (21), but there is currently no evidence that these carriers actually supported pathogen growth or transmission, which would be necessary to explain the long-term persistence of B. dendrobatidis in the absence of amphibians. Other studies have grown B. dendrobatidis on boiled snake skin (11,22), sterilized bird feathers (23), and toe scales from waterfowl (20), but none of these studies demonstrated B. dendrobatidis growth on live hosts with functioning immune systems. Consequently, we lack studies that demonstrate B. dendrobatidis growth on living, nonamphibian hosts, transmission of B. dendrobatidis from these hosts to amphibians, and links between nonamphibian hosts and B. dendrobatidis prevalence in the field.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has nonamphibian hosts and releases chemicals that cause pathology in the absence of infection

McMahon

Brannelly

Chatfield

et al. 2012

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

169

158

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Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a pathogenic chytrid fungus implicated in worldwide amphibian declines, is considered an amphibian specialist. Identification of nonamphibian hosts could help explain the virulence, heterogeneous distribution, variable rates of spread, and persistence of B. dendrobatidis in freshwater ecosystems even after amphibian extirpations. Here, we test whether mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) and crayfish (Procambarus spp. and Orconectes virilis), which are syntopic with many amphibian species, are possible hosts for B. dendrobatidis. Field surveys in Louisiana and Colorado revealed that zoosporangia occur within crayfish gastrointestinal tracts, that B. dendrobatidis prevalence in crayfish was up to 29%, and that crayfish presence in Colorado wetlands was a positive predictor of B. dendrobatidis infections in cooccurring amphibians. In experiments, crayfish, but not mosquitofish, became infected with B. dendrobatidis, maintained the infection for at least 12 wk, and transmitted B. dendrobatidis to amphibians. Exposure to water that previously held B. dendrobatidis also caused significant crayfish mortality and gill recession. These results indicate that there are nonamphibian hosts for B. dendrobatidis and suggest that B. dendrobatidis releases a chemical that can cause host pathology, even in the absence of infection. Managing these biological reservoirs for B. dendrobatidis and identifying this chemical might provide new hope for imperiled amphibians.alternative hosts | field correlation | vectors | Bd toxin

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Waterfowl: Potential Environmental Reservoirs of the Chytrid Fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

Cited by 100 publications

References 17 publications

Condition-dependent reproductive effort in frogs infected by a widespread pathogen

Condition-dependent reproductive effort in frogs infected by a widespread pathogen

Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov. causes lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians

Chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has nonamphibian hosts and releases chemicals that cause pathology in the absence of infection

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