“We are free when water is available”: gendered livelihood implications of sporadic water supply in Northern Ghana

A conceptual framework for gender and climate mainstreaming to mitigate water inaccessibility in ruralsub‐SaharanAfrica

“…For example, muddy paths can be more difficult to traverse than dry ones (Drafor & Jones, 2008; Wilbur & Danquah, 2015; Wrisdale et al, 2017), and ephemeral rivers and lakes can impede travel or provide a closer water source that can also be contaminated (Day et al, 2019; Wekesa et al, 2020). Steep slopes, varying relief of the physical terrain, and long distances particularly impact people who are young, elderly, pregnant, sick, or with a disability (Jeil et al, 2020; Mushavi et al, 2020; Pommells et al, 2018; Stevenson et al, 2012; Van Houweling, 2016; Wrisdale et al, 2017). More generally, physical disability, age, sex, gender, and social status can make it difficult for water fetchers to access or carry water (Akinyemi et al, 2005; Assefa et al, 2018; Bisung & Dickin, 2017; Bukachi et al, 2021; Dugard & Mohlakoan, 2009; Geere & Cortobius, 2017; Graham et al, 2016; Osei et al, 2015; Oyekale, 2018; Sinyolo et al, 2009; Tantoh et al, 2021; Twisa & Buchroithner, 2019; Wapenaar & Kollamparambil, 2019).…”

“…A growing body of literature has associated water inaccessibility in rural SSA with compromised safety for women, exposing them to increased risk of violence and conflict (Asoba et al, 2019; Dugard & Mohlakoan, 2009; Katsi et al, 2007; MacDonald et al, 2019; Monteith et al, 2020; Pearson et al, 2021; Sánchez & Rylance, 2018; M. Sommer, Ferron, et al, 2015; Venkataramanan et al, 2020). Violent acts associated with poor water access may take different forms, including physical violence, sexual violence, psychological/mental violence, and verbal violence (Geere, Cortobius, et al, 2018; Jeil et al, 2020; Mushavi et al, 2020; Sommer, Ferron, et al, 2015; Stevenson et al, 2012). A few studies report physical injuries and pain as a result of physical attacks and altercations during water acquisition (Asaba et al, 2014; Monteith et al, 2020).…”

“…Understanding the gendered impacts of water inaccessibility is particularly important for rural women and girls in SSA, as they are underprivileged from a water access perspective and many live in communities and regions where water insecurity is a known problem (Jeil et al, 2020;WWAP, 2019). The interplay within and between identified drivers, coping strategies, and consequences (Figure 3) demonstrates that: (1) household water inaccessibility results F I G U R E 2 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) representation of the systematic literature review process (after Moher et al, 2009) from complex interacting factors such as political, ecological and social conditions, and these driving forces overlap and are mutually reinforcing; (2) when rural women find it difficult to access adequate and reliable supplies of water, they are likely to employ coping mechanisms to meet their water needs; (3) these coping strategies are determined by complex reciprocal relationships among social, economic, political, and ecological factors, some of which may be ineffective and unsustainable; (4) household water inaccessibility together with ineffective and maladaptive coping strategies leads to adverse consequences for rural women's livelihood activities, health, and well-being that reinforce lack of access and mal-adaptive strategies (Figure 4); and (5) water access confers positive health, nutritional, safety and, socio-economic states.…”

“…Sommer, Ferron, et al, 2015;Venkataramanan et al, 2020). Violent acts associated with poor water access may take different forms, including physical violence, sexual violence, psychological/mental violence, and verbal violence (Geere, Cortobius, et al, 2018;Jeil et al, 2020;Mushavi et al, 2020;Sommer, Ferron, et al, 2015;Stevenson et al, 2012). A few studies report physical injuries and pain as a result of physical attacks and altercations during water acquisition (Asaba et al, 2014;Monteith et al, 2020).…”

“…In SSA, men and women occupy different social and political positions at the household and community levels, leading to differences in water use, water management, water rights, and water access. In many of these cultures and societies, there is unequal involvement in domestic work and care between men and women (Jeil et al, 2020; Owoo & Lambon‐Quayefio, 2021). Women are more involved in household chores and care because it underpins their socially constructed identity and bargaining power in intra‐household interactions (Cerrato & Cifre, 2018; Owoo & Lambon‐Quayefio, 2021).…”