West Nile Virus Activity in the United States, 2001

Bernard, Kristen A.; Kramer, Laura D.

doi:10.1089/08828240152716574

Cited by 68 publications

(56 citation statements)

References 110 publications

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“…The identity of the primary vectors and vertebrate host species is dependent on the geographic area and the levels of virus that are circulating [47]. However, there is a vast range of both avian and mosquito species that can be infected by WNV [9,12].…”

Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In common with many other arboviruses, a temperature dependent "extrinsic period" then ensues, during which virus must replicate and enter the salivary glands of the mosquitoes. Typically, this period is around two weeks during warm periods, but is sensitive to both temperature and humidity [9,28]. After this period, if the cycle is to be maintained, sufficient numbers of infected mosquitoes must then feed again on susceptible hosts.…”

Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Although they are typically referred to as "dead-end" hosts [47], occasional individuals, given sufficient numbers, may in fact be able to infect mosquitoes. Modes of transmission other than via insect vectors may occur and direct bird to bird spread may be possible under some circumstances [9], although again it is perhaps unlikely that such a mechanism is important in the ecology of the disease.…”

Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Not only must these hosts be capable of sustaining high-level viraemia for sufficient periods of time, they must also be fed on by sufficient numbers of competent insect vectors during this period. The relative importance of different mosquito species in the transmission cycle, whilst affected by the competence of each species to become infected with and transmit virus, is also determined by host feeding preferences, longevity and contact rates between vector and competent host [9]. It is likely that of the (at least) 16 species of mosquito reported to be virologically competent vectors of WNV [47], far fewer are likely to be important.…”

Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

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West Nile virus infection of horses

2004

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-West Nile virus (WNV) is a flavivirus closely related to Japanese encephalitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses that is primarily maintained in nature by transmission cycles between mosquitoes and birds. Occasionally, WNV infects and causes disease in other vertebrates, including humans and horses. West Nile virus has re-emerged as an important pathogen as several recent outbreaks of encephalomyelitis have been reported from different parts of Europe in addition to the large epidemic that has swept across North America. This review summarises the main features of WNV infection in the horse, with reference to complementary information from other species, highlighting the most recent scientific findings and identifying areas that require further research.

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Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Ecologymentioning

confidence: 99%

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West Nile virus infection of horses

2004

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“…Whether absence of infection or extremely high mortality is the underlying cause of the nonappearance of WNV antibodies The primary route of WNV infection is through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly of the genus Culex (Bernard andKramer 2001, Kilpatrick et al 2006). In California, experimental and field investigations suggest that C. tarsalis, C. stigmatosoma, C. erythrothorax, and C. pipiens are the most efficient vectors (Goddard et al 2002(Goddard et al , 2003.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impacts of the West Nile Virus Epizootic on the Yellow-Billed Magpie, American Crow, and Other Birds in the Sacramento Valley, California

Smallwood¹,

Nakamoto²

2009

Condor

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Emerging Infectious Diseases

Fauci¹

2004

JAMA

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Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) is one of the most important responders to disease-related stress. We assessed the association of the promoter polymorphisms of GRP78 with risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and GRP78 expression in a Chinese population. We examined 1007 patients undergoing diagnostic HCC and 810 unrelated healthy controls. Mechanisms by which the GRP78 promoter polymorphism modulates HCC risk and GRP78 levels were analyzed. The promoter haplotype and diplotype carrying rs391957 (−415 bp) allele G and genotype GG was strongly associated with HCC risk. Luciferase reporter assays indicated that the promoter carrying rs391957 allele G (haplotype GCCd) showed increased activity in HepG2 cells and Hela cells. rs391957 was also shown to increase the affinity of the transcriptional activator Ets-2, the resistance to apoptosis, as well as cell instability in stressful microenvironment. Furthermore, compared with allele A, rs391957 allele G was associated with higher levels of GRP78 mRNA and protein in HCC tissues. These findings provided new insights into the pathogenesis of HCC and an unexpected effect of the interaction between rs391957 and Ets-2 on hepatocarcinogenesis, and especially supported the hypothesis that stress-related and evolutionarily conserved genetic variant(s) influencing transcriptional regulation could predict susceptibilities.

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West Nile Virus Activity in the United States, 2001

Cited by 68 publications

References 110 publications

West Nile virus infection of horses

West Nile virus infection of horses

Impacts of the West Nile Virus Epizootic on the Yellow-Billed Magpie, American Crow, and Other Birds in the Sacramento Valley, California

Emerging Infectious Diseases

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