West Nile Virus and Wildlife

Variation in Plumage Microbiota Depends on Season and Migration

“…We now recognize that avian migration can be an efficient mode of transport for avian microorganisms [16,33] and a catalyst for infection by endoparasites and pathogens [12]. Furthermore, with the emergence of highly pathogenic diseases such as avian influenza [16] and West Nile virus [20], avian migration has become a topic of multidisciplinary concern (e.g., [13,26]). …”

Experimental Infection of Hawai`i `Amakihi (Hemignathus Virens) With West Nile Virus and Competence of a Co-Occurring Vector, Culex Quinquefasciatus: Potential Impacts on Endemic Hawaiian Avifauna

“…The virus causes noteworthy morbidity and mortality in a wide range of avian species and is now considered enzootic in North America (McLean et al, 2001;Marra et al, 2004;. Several Culex species have been implicated as enzootic vectors of WNV (Turell et al, , 2005Goddard et al, 2002).…”

Serosurveillance for Japanese Encephalitis and West Nile Viruses in Resident Birds in Hawai‘i

“…The possibility of introduction of SLEV, WNV, JEV, or other zoonotic viruses to Hawai'i via viremic captive birds or infected mosquitoes is an important consideration in quarantine and other control measures. Accordingly, WNV surveillance has been ongoing in Hawai'i since November 2004, and embargoes and quarantines have been implemented to mitigate the threat of WNV introduction (Marra et al, 2004). Quantitative analysis suggested that the most likely source for the introduction of WNV to Hawai'i is a human-transported infected mosquito, or an infectious bird or other vertebrate host .…”

“…However, introduced birds thrive on the Islands, and many of these are likely competent reservoir hosts of WNV and SLEV, such as the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) and House Finch (Carpodacus mexicanus), as well as the native Hawai'i 'Amakihi (Hemignathus virens;McLean et al, 1983;Reisen et al, 2001;Komar et al, 2003;LaPointe et al, 2009). Potential JEV reservoirs are also present in Hawai'i, such as the resident Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli) and introduced Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis), as well as feral swine (Sus scrofa) (Buescher et al, 1959;Mayer and Brisbin, 1991;Mackenzie et al, 2004;Marra et al, 2004;LaPointe, 2007). In addition, potentially competent mosquito vectors are found in Hawai'i including Aedes albopictus, Ochlerotatus japonicus, and Culex quinquefasciatus (Reeves and Hammon, 1946;Quisenberry and Wallace, 1959;Joyce, 1961;Larish and Savage, 2005;LaPointe, 2007;LaPointe et al, 2009).…”

“…While the mechanism of spread remains unknown, these invasions signify the perpetual threat of pathogen emergence. In addition to global travel, human movement into previously uninhabited areas and associated changes in land and water use may facilitate pathogen emergence and establishment (Mackenzie et al, 2004;Marra et al, 2004). While the geographic spread of highly pathogenic Asian H5N1 avian influenza virus is closely monitored on a global scale, JEV and other arboviruses merit worldwide attention as significant zoonotic pathogens.…”