Whale Ecosystem Services and Co-production Processes Underpinning Human Wellbeing in the Arctic: Case Studies from Greenland, Iceland and Norway

Associated benefits of manatee watching in the Costa dos Corais Environmental Protection Area

“…Tourism with these animals has gained national visibility in recent years and has promoted the conservation of the species and income generation for the local community (Camelo and Araujo, 2018). In Greenland, for example, when respondents were asked what would happen to their community should whales disappear from their area, most stated they could not imagine such a scenario since these animals represented a part of what they are as people (Malinauskaite et al, 2021). Similarly, the Associacão Peixe-Boi strengthened the sense of cooperation among residents, both to promote tourism and to guarantee their rights over the location.…”

“…In the case of Iceland, whale watching has expanded with tourism and is currently the largest economic sector in the country, totaling around USD 33 million per year in direct revenue (Malinauskaite et al, 2020). Since whales are highly migratory species that cannot be confined to a marine ecosystem, the forms of regulating, maintaining, and provisioning of associated ecosystem services are limited and difficult to measure when they are not present in a given tourist location (Malinauskaite et al, 2021). Manatees on the central West Coast of Florida aggregate in large numbers in the warm springs during the winter (Sorice et al, 2003;King and Heinen, 2004;Solomon et al, 2004;Sorice et al, 2006;Ponnampalam et al, 2022), which makes them easier to locate by tour operators and guides.…”

“…Factors such as rarity, visual appearance, size, and cultural familiarity can influence our charisma for mammals (MacDonald et al, 2015). According to Malinauskaite et al (2021), whale watching guides and operators reported that spotting a whale for the first time can be a highly sought-after and even spiritual experience due to the rarity and sheer size of these animals. Once the protection of charismatic species is guaranteed, these symbols can ensure environmental survival and attract large contingents of people to visit and view them, while providing leisure and a source of income for the local community (Vilas Boas and Dias, 2010).…”

“…The scientific literature shows that in the last 50 years, ecosystem services have been increasingly identified, especially those related to culture such as recreation, tourism, relaxation, and quality of life (Felipe-Lucia et al, 2015). A growing number of publications have focused on marine ecosystem services to inform decision-makers as to their importance for human well-being and the multiple implications of their loss (Sagebiel et al, 2016;Ferreira et al, 2017;Cook et al, 2019;Malinauskaite et al, 2020;Malinauskaite et al, 2021).…”

“…Marine mammals provide a wide range of interconnected ecosystem services relevant to humans, such as raw materials (meat, teeth, bones, fins, and oil), ecosystem support and regulation, cultural identity, education, spiritual enrichment, and recreational fun (Cook et al, 2020;Malinauskaite et al, 2021). In the past, marine mammals were mostly exploited for subsistence and commercial hunting (Whitehead, 1977;Domning, 1982;Luna et al, 2008a;Luna et al, 2008b;O'Connor et al, 2009;Silva Juńior, 2010;Hoyt and Parsons, 2014).…”