What America Has Expected of Its Schools over the Past Century

Graham, Patricia Albjerg

doi:10.1086/444034

Cited by 34 publications

(14 citation statements)

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“…It marked an expanded federal role in that it required states to set (1) standards for student academic performance, (2) assess and make transparent student performance in relationship to those standards, and (3) create accountability systems-particularly focused on schools enrolling critical densities of low income children. It also changed the performance expectations for schools from the historic emphasis on equality of access to schooling to equality of outputs, as measured by performance on standardized tests (for a review of this history, see Graham, 1993). More recent initiatives include rapid state adoption (45 of 50 states) of the rigorous Common Core Standards for student learning (Phillips and Wong, 2010) and President Obama's Race to the Top initiative, which offers competitive funds to improve low performing schools and districts (McGuinn, 2012).…”

Section: Policy Developmentsmentioning

confidence: 99%

School Social Work in the United States: Current Evidence and Future Directions

Stone¹

2015

Arbor

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This paper surveys the historical and school institutional factors that shape current workforce, programmatic, and practice trends related to school social work in America. A key strand developed throughout is that the field of practice appears to be at a crossroads. It is suggested that this field of practice may be enhanced by placing the central focus on schools as organisations and school-community relations as key targets of intervention. KEYWORDS:School social work; education; academic performance. RESUMEN:Este artículo examina los factores históricos e institucionales que perfilan al personal docente, las tendencias en las programaciones y las prácticas que se desarrollan en la actualidad en el ámbito del trabajo social en la escuela en los Estados Unidos de América. Un aspecto clave derivado de este examen es que la profesión parece estar en una encrucijada. Se sugiere como alternativa a esta situación, centrar la atención y los objetivos fundamentales de intervención en las escuelas como organizaciones, y en las relaciones que se generan entre las escuelas y la comunidad.

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Section: Policy Developmentsmentioning

confidence: 99%

School Social Work in the United States: Current Evidence and Future Directions

Stone¹

2015

Arbor

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“…Since World War II, the primary means of expanding the public school system has been extending access to unserved or underserved populations (Graham, 1993). Education policy has focused on the "front end" of schooling-getting students in school, raising and allocating resources, opening new schools, consolidating schools and districts, producing engaging curricular materials, and training new teachers.…”

Section: Excellencementioning

confidence: 99%

Uneasy Allies: The Evolving Relationship of School and State

Loveless

1998

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis

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The American school originated as an extension of fundamental social units: families, churches, and communities. Repeated waves of reform succeeded in fully institutionalizing public schooling, and schools came to operate under a formal system of public authority. Founded as an institution independent from state and federal control, the school has been transformed into an institution wedded to multiple layers of government-local, state, and federal. This essay explores the historical evolution of the school-state relationship, how educational reform movements of the past 30 years may undermine the alliance of school and state, and the challenges this development poses for analysts of education policy.

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“…In a paper presented at the Conference on Democracy and Education, Patricia Graham (1991) examines America's expectations for schools over the past century. Following Cremin, she argues that "the role of schools is powerfully shaped by the context in which they exist" and that expectations change over time (p. 2).…”

Section: First-and Second-order Changementioning

confidence: 99%

“…As Graham (1991) suggests, equity is not a static or unidimensional construct. Three changing dimensions are discussed in the literature: access, process or participation, and outcomes.…”

Section: First-and Second-order Changementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Different routes or supports (e.g., individualized educational plans, wheelchair ramps, Headstart, differentiated curriculum or materials) can be justified on the basis of need, merit, or past discrimination. Graham (1991) makes clear the difference between equal and equitable access by using the metaphor of a swim meet in which swimmers and nonswimmers alike are thrown into a pool without life support and told to make their way to the other end.…”

Section: First-and Second-order Changementioning

confidence: 99%

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Chapter 5: Professional Development Schools and Equity: A Critical Analysis of Rhetoric and Research

Valli

Cooper

Frankes

1997

Review of Research in Education

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Tomorrow 's Schools (1990) is the second report in the Holmes Group's trilogy on the reform of education in the United States. Centrally focused on the improved preparation of teachers, the three reports offer a vision of a new institution, the professional development school (PDS). Although the other two volumes, Tomorrow's Teachers (1986) and Tomorrow's Schools of Education (1995), discuss this new institution, the second volume elaborates on principles for its design. Given the growing popularity of the concept, the growing numbers of PDSs and PDS networks, and the work of the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education in developing PDS standards, a close examination of the design principles and related research seems warranted.While other reviews of the research have been conducted, this one differs in three fundamental ways. 1 First, it attempts to match the goals set out by PDS proponents with changes documented through research. Second, it seeks to determine whether those changes are what Cuban (1988) calls first-or second-order change. Finally, it specifically relates these PDS goals and changes to equity goals. Equity has long been a cherished, albeit controversial, goal of American education. It is also a driving force behind the vision for PDSs as articulated in Tomorrow's Schools. Therefore, a question worth asking is, What, if anything, would enable PDSs to accomplish a goal that has thus far eluded most of our nation's schools?To answer that question, we begin with a definition of PDSs, an explanation of first-and second-order changes, and an overview of equity as a concept in educational literature. We then review both the advocacy and research literature on PDSs under six themes we have identified and extract equity implications. The specific questions guiding our research were as follows:1. What does the literature say about aspirations for PDSs? What do proponents hope and claim these new organizational structures can accomplish? Are these first-or second-order change aspirations? 251

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What America Has Expected of Its Schools over the Past Century

Cited by 34 publications

References 1 publication

School Social Work in the United States: Current Evidence and Future Directions

School Social Work in the United States: Current Evidence and Future Directions

Uneasy Allies: The Evolving Relationship of School and State

Chapter 5: Professional Development Schools and Equity: A Critical Analysis of Rhetoric and Research

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