“…to workers (such as wages and pension provisions), layoffs, retrenchments, and closures. 7 As a consequence, India's labor laws (exemplified by the IDA) has reduced the incentive of firms in the modern manufacturing sector to hire workers on permanent contracts and pushed them toward more capital-intensive modes of production, than warranted by existing costs of labor relative to capital (Saha, Sen, and Maiti 2013;Dougherty 2009;Hasan, Mitra, and Sundaram 2013). In addition, India's restrictive labor laws have had a negative effect on the growth of the formal manufacturing sector, especially its labor-intensive industries, leading to limited possibilities for the formal manufacturing sector to absorb the high levels of surplus labor that are present in a relatively low-productivity agriculture sector (Besley and Burgess 2004;Gupta, Hasan, and Kumar 2009).…”