What is left after an error? Towards a comprehensive account of goal-based binding and retrieval

Abstract

The cognitive system readily detects and corrects erroneous actions by establishing episodic bindings between representations of the acted upon stimuli and the intended correct response. If these stimuli are encountered again, they trigger the retrieval of the correct response. Thus, binding and retrieval efficiently pave the way for future success. The current study set out to define the role of the erroneous response itself and explicit feedback for the error during these processes of goal-based binding and retrieval. Two experiments showed robust and similar binding and retrieval effects with and without feedback and pointed towards sustained activation of the unbound, erroneous response. The third experiment confirmed that the erroneous response is more readily available than a neutral alternative. Together, the results demonstrate that episodic binding biases future actions toward success, guided primarily through internal feedback processes, while the erroneous response still leaves detectable traces in human action control.

Error cancellation

“…We handled performance feedback similarly in the main study (see Stimuli and apparatus and Procedure ). Validating this design choice, we found similar effects of error cancellation in a replication study of the reported work, where we manipulated between participants whether the commission of an error was or was not fed back at the end of a trial (see electronic supplementary material, figure S1 for the trial procedure; [ 25 ]). Again, we found shorter RDs, F 1,92 = 62.20, p < 0.001, , d z = 0.81, and shorter RTs, F 1,92 = 106.37, p < 0.001, , d z = 1.06, for errors than for correct responses across feedback conditions (with non-significant main effects of feedback and two-way interactions of accuracy and feedback in RDs and RTs, F s 1,92 ≤ 1.52, p s ≥ 0.220, , d z ≤ 0.13).…”

“…The observation of immediate error cancellation also suggests that the erroneous action might be subject to inhibition. Instead, erroneous responses seem to remain even more accessible in an upcoming action episode compared with a neutral response that neither corresponded with the preceding erroneous nor the actual correct response ([ 25 ]; see also [ 44 , 45 ]). This observation, however, does not contradict the assumption of an overall inhibition of motor activity [ 19 ].…”

“…For one, erroneous responses often have shorter response times (RTs) than correct responses [ 15 , 20 , 23 ]. To arrive at a plausible estimate of the hypothesized effect of error commission on RD, and to examine the role of the predicted RT differences for our main measure of RDs, we re-analysed data from previous work in which we had participants perform a speeded choice reaction task and recorded onsets as well as offsets of their keypress responses (Experiments 1 of [ 24 , 25 ]). We analysed RDs and RTs as a joint function of accuracy (correct versus error) and quartiles of the RT distribution.…”

Binding Error-Induced Control States

“…While previous research focused on cognitive control in challenging, but correct trials, the current study extends the notion of binding and retrieval of control states to erroneous actions. Theoretical accounts consider errors as a special case of conflict – while conflict during correct trials should be highest before response execution (i.e., before the correct response is selected amongst other highly active but inappropriate responses), conflict in trials with incorrect responses should be highest during and after response execution, because of the concurrent activation of the incorrect and the correct response ( Foerster et al, submitted ; Yeung et al, 2004 ). Despite these differences, errors should yield strong control states at least by the end of a behavioral episode.…”

“…Theoretical accounts have further proposed that only correct actions are subject to binding ( Hommel, 2005 ), yet, recent evidence suggests a different picture. Binding of stimulus and response features does indeed take place for action slips, with the correct but not executed response being bound to task-relevant and task-irrelevant stimulus features during error commission ( Foerster et al, submitted ; Foerster, Moeller, et al, 2021 ; Foerster, Rothermund, et al, 2021 ). Features of the executed erroneous response still remain activated and can enter bindings with action-triggered changes in the agent’s environment.…”