What is religious freedom and who has it?

Abstract

Religious freedom (RF) is important because it is posited to be a central element of liberal democracy and as having multiple additional benefits including increased security and economic prosperity. Yet, it is also a disputed concept and many liberal democracies restrict the freedoms of religious minorities. This study uses the Religion and State (RAS) dataset to examine the extent of RF in 183 countries based on six definitions of RF. The author examines whether religious minorities are restricted in a manner that the majority is not, regulation of the majority religion, and imposition of precepts of the majority religion on a country’s population. He finds that very few countries, including liberal democracies, meet any standard for RF, even when one allows for ‘loose’ standards where some violations of RF are allowed.

White by Another Name? Can Anti-Christian Bias Claims Serve as a Racial Dog Whistle?

“…We focused on “Christian” as a racial dog whistle for “White” because religion is particularly effective given its racial deniability, Americans generally agree religious freedom should be protected (Fox, 2021), and religious identities remain demonstrably racialized (Perry, 2023). By contrast, other conservative issues such as proheteronormativity and protraditional gender roles are not racialized to the same extent because racial minorities often support heteronormative (Sherkat, 2017) and patriarchal views (Scarborough et al, 2019).…”

“…Consequently, anti-Christian bias claims may not evoke the same penalties as explicit race references (e.g., anti-White bias claims; Perry, 2023; Wilkins et al, 2013). Instead, defending Christians may be seen as upholding a democratic ideal (religious freedom) shared by racially diverse Americans (Fox, 2021).…”

Macrolevel factors encouraging bureaucratic policy entrepreneurship: The case of religion and state in Israel

“…The economics of religion shows that government regulations play a critical role in shaping religious trends (Iannaccone et al, 1997). Furthermore, a monopolized state support for religion, where religious institutions such as religious departments and courts are incorporated into the government, can also lead to the bureaucratization of religion (Fox, 2021; Künkler, 2018). Evidently, many religions become highly bureaucratized, particularly the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, as well as state‐supported Protestant ones.…”

Iraq’s Religious Minorities: On the Precipice

“…Whereas liberal political ideology regards religious freedom or belief as important and beneficial, many non-liberal governments consider religion a potential challenge to their rule (Koesel, 2017; Sarkissian, 2015). And while religious freedom can be found in an increasing number of constitutions and international documents, guarantees are often unrealized, even in democracies (Fox, 2021). The Pew Research Center has identified two broad types of infringements on the selection, profession, or practice of religion: government restrictions and social hostilities.…”