What Predicts First‐ and Second‐Language Difficulties? Testing Language and Executive Functioning Skills as Correlates

Abstract

This study examined the co-occurrence of word reading difficulty in Chinese (L1) and English as a second language (L2) and tested language and executive functioning (EF) skills as correlates. Thirty-nine poor readers in Chinese (PC), 39 poor readers in English (PE), and 26 poor readers of both languages (PB) were compared to 39 average readers who served as controls (C). The co-occurrence rate of L1-L2 difficulty was 40%. Moreover, PC, PE, and PB performed less well than C on all language and EF skills; PB performed less well than PC, PE, and C on L1 and L2 phonological awareness, L2 morphological awareness, rapid naming, and EF. Findings highlight the role of language and EF skills in L1 and L2 reading development.

Are General Anxiety, Reading Anxiety, and Reading Self-Concept Linked to Reading Skills Among Chinese Adolescents With and Without Dyslexia?

“…In line with the deficit model (Carey et al, 2016), selfenhancement hypothesis (Calsyn & Kenny, 1977), and previous studies (Conradi Smith & Jang, 2021;Livingston et al, 2018;Torppa et al, 2020), our results showed that readers with dyslexia had higher levels of general anxiety and reading anxiety and lower levels of reading self-concept than typical readers. Aligned with our hypothesis and previous studies (e.g., Chung et al, 2022;Peng et al, 2018), adolescents with dyslexia showed poorer rapid digit naming and verbal working memory performance. Moreover, reading self-concept was statistically significantly associated with word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension in adolescents with and without dyslexia, after controlling for rapid digit naming and verbal working memory.…”

“…Our findings also showed unique relationships between verbal working memory and the three reading skills. Consistent with previous research (e.g., Chung et al, 2022;Peng et al, 2018), verbal working memory is essential in developing reading skills. The ability to process and retain verbal information in working memory is vital to reading with or without dyslexia (e.g., Chung et al, 2022;Peng et al, 2018).…”

“…Associations between verbal working memory and reading skills were found in fourth graders or above (Peng et al, 2018). Studies on Chinese children with dyslexia also showed deficits in working memory (Chung et al, 2022). Furthermore, Chung et al (2011) found that verbal working memory was predictive of Chinese word reading and reading comprehension in Chinese adolescents with and without dyslexia.…”

What are the cognitive‐linguistic profiles and subtypes of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia?

“…Cognitive‐linguistic skills are critical for acquiring language and literacy skills; explicit and systematic instruction of these skills would have cascading effects on word reading, reading fluency, reading comprehension and writing for Chinese children (Ho et al, 2012, 2014). For example, training for visual‐orthographic knowledge and morphological skills may focus on the morphological analysis of words (i.e., how characters combine to form words), the shape‐to‐meaning connections in characters and knowledge of semantic and phonological radicals as part of characters and words (Chung et al, 2022; Ho & Lai, 1999). Using a gamification approach to teach morphological skills with gamified reading environments through a morphology battle may be beneficial (Qiao et al, 2022).…”

“…Across the lifespan, the manifestations of dyslexia are heterogeneous, with varying severity of impairment in different cognitive‐linguistic domains (e.g., Chung et al, 2018). Previous research on dyslexia has mainly focused on children's cognitive‐linguistic deficits that may lead to problems in reading and writing in English and Chinese (e.g., Chung et al, 2022; Ho, Chan, Chung, Lee, et al, 2007; Ho, Chan, Chung, Tsang, et al, 2007). Fewer studies have examined the profiles of adolescents with dyslexia who exhibit multiple deficits in cognitive‐linguistic domains, such as morphological skills, visual‐orthographic knowledge, rapid naming and working memory (e.g., Chung et al, 2010; Chung & Lam, 2020).…”