When does hate hurt the most? Generational differences in the association between ethnic and racial harassment, ethnic attachment, and mental health

Abstract

Using data from Understanding Society, this paper provides a comprehensive account of the associations between ethnic and racial harassment (ERH), mental health and ethnic attachment for ethnic minorities living in England. We find an association between ERH and poor mental health measured using GHQ for ethnic minorities, even after controlling for a rich array of individual and area level characteristics. We find that ethnic attachment, measured as ethnic identity and co-ethnic friendship ties, moderates this association but solely for UK born ethnic minorities. In contrast to previous research, we further find that living in areas of high co-ethnic concentration appears to exacerbate the association between ERH and mental ill-health.

Wellbeing in local areas: how trust, happiness, social distance and experience of discrimination differ in the perceived ethnic enclave

“…For social trust and perceived discrimination, the difference between enclave and non-enclave residents diminishes but disappears only for 2nd generation minority members. The literature generally ascribes a positive effect to spatially concentrated areas for migrants and minorities in terms of the experience of discrimination (Bécares et al 2009), but our results align with these of recent studies (Nandi et al 2020) which find mixed evidence of shielding. After accounting for residential sorting in our analyses, migrants continue to perceive greater levels of discrimination in enclaves whereas among the 2nd generation the significance of the positive relationship between perceived discrimination and enclave residence disappears but does not reverse.…”

“…Bécares et al (2009Bécares et al ( , 2011 show that ethnic density can have a shielding effect on the experience of racism and mental health, and in mitigating the negative impact of deprivation. Using UK data, Nandi et al (2020) show that the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health is exacerbated in areas of strong presence of co-ethnics which the authors interpret in line of the high visibility and threat framework. Perceived ethnic discrimination has been studied with European Social Survey data (André and Dronkers 2017) as a function of religiosity and economic threat, and groups sizeproxied by the size of the immigrant group in the country of residence however not in relation to ethnic homogeneity per se or the ethnic enclave.…”

“…Such areas can be culturally and economically distinctive and characterized by the increased presence of formal and informal community institutions and ethnic businesses (Zhou 2004) but their defining feature is the spatial concentration of non-majority members in the residential locality (Danzer and Yaman 2013;Poulsen et al 2002) Politicians can be quite negative about the effect of ethnic enclaves and see them as breeding ground for extremist ideas, and as the marker of social isolation from the mainstream for migrants and minorities (Cameron 2011). Yet, research shows that enclaves may have important benefits as well: they can provide economic opportunities and advice from co-ethnics in the first stages of the migration journey (Portes et al 2005;Zhou 1994) alongside shielding effects for migrants and minority members that may otherwise be exposed to heightened levels of discrimination (Bécares et al 2009;Nandi et al 2020). Thus, migrants and minorities can actively seek ethnic enclaves and the concentration of co-ethnics and other migrants in such residential spaces for access to ethnic goods, positive social and cultural connections with in-groupers and reduced exposure to prejudice and stereotyping (Bécares et al 2009;Portes and Zhou 1993;Zhou 2005).…”

The EU Referendum and Experiences and Fear of Ethnic and Racial Harassment: Variation Across Individuals and Communities in England

“…In this paper, we test whether one such politicized event-the 2016 EU Referendum-increased reports of ethnic and racial harassment (physical or verbal attacks perceived by the victim to be due to their race, ethnicity, nationality, language, accent, dress or appearance) in public places as well as fear of such harassment for both white and non-white ethnic minorities in the UK. We are interested in both the actual experience of harassment as well as fear of such experiences as prior research has shown that both can have detrimental effect on mental health (Nandi et al, , 2020. In addition to improving our understanding of the effect of racially politicized events on outgroup attitudes and discriminatory practices, our aim with this study was to provide an updated account of experiences and fear of ethnic and racial harassment in British society following the EU Referendum vote.…”

On Double Jeopardy: Race and Gender Explain Intersectional Subjective Stigmatization Likely Additively, and Possibly Projectively, but Unlikely Multiplicatively

“…Similarly, experiences of racial and ethnic harassment may contribute to poor mental health, (Nandi et al, 2016;Wallace et al, 2016;Nandi et al 2020) as well as posttraumatic stress (Buchanan et al, 2018). As such, overall perceptions of discrimination are associated with psychological distress, disorders (e.g., Major Depressive Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder), and even suicidal ideation (Kressler, et al, 1999;Hwang & Goto, 2008;King, 2003; also see a meta-analysis suggesting that subjective perceptions of prejudice can negatively impact overall physical and mental health, Pascoe & Richman, 2009).…”