When experimental psychology is not empirical enough: The case of the "exposure orientation."

Abstract

Most psychologists accept the familiar view that exposure to opiate drugs engenders a powerful tendency toward subsequent addictive use. However, a review of historical, clinical, and experimental evidence shows that this view of addiction, which can be labelled the "exposure orientation," is not true. Therefore, psychology would appear to be helping to support a popular misconception. Experimental psychology, in particular, is not being fully empirical when it dwells on the meagre experimental basis for the exposure orientation and ignores the larger body of observable fact that discredits it. A fuller empiricism could re-assert psychology's authority to lead, rather than follow, popular culture.

Defining "addiction."

“…There is extensive evidence and growing recognition that withdrawal symptoms and tolerance only sometimes accompany addiction and are rarely its cause (Alexander, 1984; Edwards, Arif, & Hodgson, 1982; Goldstein, 1983; Jaffe, 1980). For example, by carefully interviewing addicts, Cummings, Gordon, and Marlatt (1980) found that "relapses involving opiates do not occur primarily in response to somatic discomfort" (p. 305).…”

Recidivism After a Prison-Based Treatment Program: a Comparison Between a Treatment and Control Group Using Proportional Weighting Within Strata

“…The training aims to target offenders with drug, alcohol, and/or gambling abuse problems; not excluded on additional grounds, which are a negative attitude towards the sanction imposed; severe psychiatric problems; and being able to function in group treatment (SVG [84]). 2 Depending on risk and need scores, some offenders may not qualify for any of these treatment programs. If this is the case, they can participate in the Prevention of Recidivism Program without allocation to any treatment module.…”

“…This can be explained by referring to the psychopharmacological properties of drugs and alcohol, stating that intoxication (undermining judgment and self-control, causing paranoid thoughts or distorting inhibitions and perceptions) may lead to aggression (due to, for example, withdrawal or sleep deprivation; [85]) which in turn can cause criminal behavior [21,26,90]. It can also be clarified by referring to the economic motivation to get drugs or alcohol, in which drug and alcohol users are inevitably designated to non-legally acquired income to supply in their (often growing) demand (frequently referred to as pharmacological determinism, which asserts that people who were once exposed to drugs, often require this in increasing amounts; [2]). Lastly, it can be explained by a systemic model [32], which draws on the fact that substance abuse is fundamentally connected with violent crime.…”