“…The substantial literature that evolved around the consequences of Japan's electoral reform of 1994, which some scholars describe as a 'natural experiment,' follows this model (Cox et al, 2000;Giannetti and Grofman, 2011;Catalinac, 2016;Goplerud and Smith, 2021). Japan has also been examined as a key case to address general, substantive questions in areas such as trade policy and the evolution of the international order (Davis, 2003;Naoi, 2015;Lipscy, 2017;Goddard, 2018;Funabashi and Ikenberry, 2020). Another common approach is to leverage some feature of Japan advantageous for causal inferencee.g., as-if random assignment of attributes such as the timing of municipal elections and candidate surnamesor to conduct survey experiments on Japanese subjects to examine questions of broader significance (Fukumoto and Horiuchi, 2011;Fukumoto and Miwa, 2018;Kitagawa and Chu, 2021).…”