Which Type of Exercise Is More Beneficial for Cognitive Function? A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Open-Skill Exercise versus Closed-Skill Exercise among Children, Adults, and Elderly Populations

Abstract

A large number of studies have described a positive relationship between physical exercise and cognition. Physical exercise can be divided into closed-skill exercise (CSE) and open-skill exercise (OSE) based on the predictability of the performance environment. It remains unknown whether either of these types of exercise is more beneficial for cognitive function. Therefore, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the effect of OSE versus CSE on cognition. Eligible studies included cross-sectional studies and intervention studies that had a clear definition of OSE and CSE, and these were used to compare the cognitive performance differences between the two classes of exercise. A total of 15 cross-sectional studies and 4 intervention studies were included in this meta-analysis. Among the cross-sectional studies, the overall effect size for OSE versus CSE was 0.304 (95% confidence interval (CI) (−0.097, 1.213); p < 0.05). Further subgroup analysis showed that the overall effect size for OSE versus CSE was 0.247 for inhibition and 0.360 for cognitive flexibility (both p < 0.05). In contrast, no significant differences between the two exercise modes were observed in the intervention studies. In particular, there were no significant differences in visuospatial attention or in processing speed between the two exercise modes. Taken together, these results suggest that OSE is superior to CSE, especially for executive function, according to the 15 cross-sectional studies examined. However, data from the intervention studies indicate that OSE is not superior. Therefore, additional well-designed, long-term intervention studies are needed to elucidate the potential efficacy of OSE in all populations.

Comparison of the effects of open vs. closed skill exercise on the acute and chronic BDNF, IGF-1 and IL-6 response in older healthy adults

“…So it is not clear whether OSE is more beneficial to brain health than CSE or whether people with better status of cognitive functions prefer this type of exercise. These results are confirmed by the meta-analysis of Zhu et al [ 55 ]. The authors show that, compared with CSE, OSE is more advantageous in improving cognitive functions, especially with respect to executive functions such as inhibition and cognitive flexibility.…”

“…However, only 4 out of 19 studies included in this meta-analysis were intervention studies. Excluding the cross-sectional studies, no significant differences could be found between the two exercise types [ 55 ]. In this context, Hung et al [ 56 ] investigated the acute effect of OSE and CSE on the BDNF concentration in the blood of young males.…”

Effects of Open-Skill Exercises on Cognition on Community Dwelling Older Adults: Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial

“…In contrast, closed-skill exercises are conducted in an environment that is relatively stable, predictable, and self-paced (e.g., running and swimming) [ 24 ]. Previous studies confirmed that older adults demonstrated better executive function when participating in open-skill exercises compared to closed-skill exercises [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Children who played open-skill exercises also exhibited better cognitive functions and academic achievement than those who played closed-skill exercises [ 28 , 30 , 31 ].…”

Inhibition and Calendar Age Explain Variance in Game Performance of Youth Soccer Athletes

“…Extensive research postulates the positive impact of physical activity on EFs [19][20][21], especially for age groups ranging from 6 to 13 years and over 50 years old [22]. Focusing on athletes, numerous authors have postulated that the development of EFs is dependent on the specific affordances and characteristics of the conducted sports [5,6,18,[22][23][24]. For example, [23] showed that open-skill sport athletes outperform closed-skill sport athletes in inhibitory control.…”