Why are exporters more gender-friendly? Evidence from China

The Effects of Trade Participation on Labor Productivity, Wages and Female Employment: Evidence from Egyptian Manufacturing Firms

“…To see if the gender gap differs between trading and non-trading firms, Table 6 shows the estimated coefficients for the interaction terms between female labor share and a firm's trading status. Since the interaction coefficients are both positive, we can conclude that the gender wage gap is reduced-though does not fully disappear-in exporting and importing firms which is consistent with the findings of both Chen and Hu (2023) for exporting firms in China and Rocha and Winkler (2019) for exporting and importing firms in a large set of developing countries. This result can be attributed to the higher productivity and profitability of trading firms and their likely less engagement in costly and inefficient gender discriminatory practices.…”

“…Accordingly, they exploit the persistent gender wage gap to reduce costs and remain competitive through hiring more female workers who receive lower wages compared to men, such that trade improves female employment but not necessarily their pay. A study by Chen and Hu (2023) found evidence for gender-friendly behaviors of exporters in China where the female employment share is larger, and the gender wage gap is smaller for exporters than non-exporters…”

Export intensity and its effect on women's employment

“…Several studies confirm lower discrimination against female workers due to greater competitive pressure to cut costs (Blau & Kahn, 2017;Cooke et al, 2019;Hellerstein et al, 2002;Weichselbaumer & Winter-Ebmer, 2007). By virtue of being exposed to greater competition in international markets (see Bøler et al, 2018;Chen & Hu, 2023;Ederington et al, 2009;Heyman et al, 2013;Rocha & Winkler, 2019), Becker's theory implies that exporters are likely to discriminate less and hire more female workers than non-exporters (see Chen & Hu, 2023;Ederington et al, 2009;Rocha & Winkler, 2019). 1 Second, some studies find that females enjoy a comparative advantage in cognitive versus physical skills (Do et al, 2011;Galor & Weil, 1996;Juhn et al, 2014).…”

“…Even so, the available evidence is mixed and inconclusive. Studies that find that greater trade openness is associated with higher female employment include those by Chen and Hu (2023), World Bank (2020a), Rocha and Winkler (2019), Juhn et al (2014), Chen et al (2013), Aguayo‐Tellez et al (2010), Bussmann (2009), Ozler (2000), and Wood (1991). In contrast, studies showing no effect, a negative effect, or contradictory effects include Wamboye and Seguino (2015), Cooray et al (2012), Gray et al (2006), Meyer (2006), and Joekes (1995).…”

“…Even so, the available evidence is mixed and inconclusive. Studies that find that greater trade openness is associated with higher female employment include those by Chen and Hu (2023), World Bank (2020a), Rocha and Winkler (2019), Juhn et al (2014), Chen et al (2013), Aguayo-Tellez et al (2010), Bussmann (2009), Ozler (2000), and Wood (1991).…”