Why does unpaid labour vary among digital labour platforms? Exploring socio-technical platform regimes of worker autonomy

Abstract

Digital platforms provide many workers with vital income and offer the promise of flexible work, and yet also contribute to experiences of precariousness and exploitation, particularly with regard to pressures to undertake unpaid work. This article explores why unpaid labour is necessary and what drives its extent and form among diverse types of digital platforms. We theorize two ideal types of ‘open’ and ‘closed’ socio-technical platform regimes of worker autonomy, building on sociological insights about socio-technical systems, management control over worker autonomy and labour market segmentation by skill. In principle, ‘open’ (‘closed’) platform regimes grant relatively high (low) worker autonomy in terms of access to the platform, paid work and control over work tasks. Analysing five case studies, illustrative of ‘open’ and ‘closed’ regimes, we investigate unpaid labour in low-skill locational (i.e. food delivery) platforms and medium/high-skill online (i.e. freelancing) platforms. In brief, digital freelancers exhibit a lower extent of unpaid labour within relatively ‘open’ regimes, owing to greater autonomy over access to, and control over, platform work in a sector requiring medium/high skills. Conversely, ‘closed’ regimes mitigate unpaid labour for food-delivery platforms by providing market shelter for workers, who are easily replaced in an overcrowded sector requiring few skills.

Mapping social protection coverage for platform workers: A comparative analysis of Belgium, Italy and the Netherlands

“…The above analysis shows that platform workers often experience low wages, unpredictable and insufficient available work and insecure employment (Behrendt et al, 2019:22;Berg et al, 2018: 62). Another element to consider when it comes to platform work is the prevalence of unpaid work (Behrendt et al, 2019: 23;Forde et al, 2017: 34;ILO, 2021;Pulignano and Mara, 2021; for a more in-depth discussion on unpaid work: Pulignano et al, 2023a andPulignano et al, 2023b). Unpaid work can be defined as any hours worked that are not paid or taken into account as work, such as waiting time, for platform delivery workers.…”

“…In the light of the literature review, in the following sections we will use two dimensionsworking time and income levelas key analytical dimensions to analyse the unemployment coverage of employed platform workers. While unpaid labour is not included in this analysis, it is an important element to take into account when interpreting the findings and implications (Pulignano et al 2023a andPulignano et al 2023b).…”

A taxonomy of business models of digital care platforms in Spain

“…1 Unpaid labour is a worker's time or effort outside the fixed hours and hourly rates of a standard employment relationship (Pulignano et al, 2023).…”

Entrepreneurial opportunities and working conditions of self-employed online freelancers in the platform economy

“…The scale of platform work is difficult to measure and often debated (Piasna and Drahokoupil, 2019 [5]; Kässi, Lehdonvirta and Stephany, 2021 [6]), but a recent OECD/ILO/EU measurement handbook offers guidance to statistical agencies for improving methodologies (OECD/ILO/EU, 2023 [7]). Divergent estimates show that the prevalence of digital platform employment ranges from less than 1% to as much as 8% of the labour market (OECD/ILO/European Union, 2023 [8]).…”