Why Migrant Smuggling Pays

Abstract

Drawing on empirical research in Afghanistan and Pakistan, this article 'follows the money' for 50 migrants smuggled to the UK, to cast light on the financing of smuggling. The means used to raise the money to pay smugglers ranged from drawing on savings to selling property, land and jewellery. Payments were made to a third-party, who did not release the payment to the smuggler until migrants had arrived in their destination -effectively a 'money-back guarantee' on smuggling. Smugglers disbursed about half of their fee to forgers, procurers of passports, airport officials and other intermediaries required to facilitate smuggling. Most migrants quickly found work in their destination and started remitting soon after their arrival. On average remittances were at a sufficient level to repay the initial outlay on smugglers' fees after two years, and thereafter remittances on average more than doubled household incomes at home. In this case study, smuggling therefore paid for the range of intermediaries involved in facilitating it, for migrants themselves, and for migrants' households at home.

Forced to leave? The discursive and analytical significance of describing migration as forced and voluntary

“…Relating this to migrants, we may consider those who voluntarily leave their country of origin but then involuntarily put themselves in the hands of smugglers because there are no acceptable alternatives. Or, another example would be migrants who are forced to leave but then make voluntary choices about their mode of travel (Koser 2008). Such distinctions prove crucial because one of the main critiques of 'forced migration' is that all migrants exercise agency in their decision to migrate.…”

Seeking the views of irregular migrants: Decision-making, drivers and migration journeys

“…The significant influence of agents is highlighted in European research on asylum seekers' decision-making (Koser, 2008;Robinson & Segrott, 2002;van Liempt & Doomernik, 2006). It is possible that the entrenched smuggling networks that have supported irregular migration flows into Europe for decades may render potential migrants less able to exercise agency in terms of where to travel, particularly given the many countries smugglers can ultimately send migrants.…”

Critical Perspectives on Clandestine Migration Facilitation: An Overview of Migrant Smuggling Research

“…Despite the infamous reputation smuggling facilitators have in the media, being a smuggler is far from a frowned upon activity within migrant and refugee communities (Majidi 2016;Koser 2008). Access to or information on reliable, trusted facilitators becomes critical in anticipation of clandestine journeys, as friends and families of migrants and asylum seekers and the travelers themselves are vastly aware of the challenges inherent to their passages and seek to reduce them (Alpes 2012).…”

“…However, estimating the size of the migrant smuggling market in terms of its finances is a virtually impossible proposition. Smugglers do not keep official records of their transactions, they may charge different fees to different clients, many rely on informal forms of banking (Koser 2008;Majidi 2016), and some are paid in kind while others may charge no fees at all. In other words, costs and profits associated with clandestine travels vary considerably depending on locations, clients, and facilitators.…”

“…Many migrants or asylum seekers and their families run out of resources to cover their fees, having then to devise arrangements with facilitators to pay off service by performing smuggling-related tasks themselves (Sanchez 2015) or working out payment plans (Koser 2008). While most smuggling facilitators favor negotiations, many threaten their clients, and many may engage in acts of extreme violence, like physical or sexual abuse, extortion, kidnapping, and torture in order to obtain their fees (CNDH 2011).…”